الأخ أحمد

تحياتي الحارة

آسف لتأخير نشر البحث.

أواجه عدة مشاكل مع الطباعة. يبدو أن المعضلة الأولى مع المسافات التى لم أنجح فى ضبطها بالصورة اللائقة. والثانية بالخرائط والأشكال.

تسهيلاً للمهمة بالنسبة لي آمل فى الآتى

وضع النص فى ملف خاص به بعد ازاحة الصور والخرائط وارفاقة كصفحة Ward as a normal attachment

أما الخرائط فأرجو أن تعمل لها سكاننج كصور وترفقها فى ملف منفصل.

أضافة آمل أن تشرع فى ترجمته للعربية فإننى سأنشره بالإنجليزية بعد استلامه مع الاشارة الى أنك ستقوم بالترجمة

 

The Missing Links:

 Relations between Early Cultures of the Sudan and the Western Frontiers of the Nile before the End of the 4^th Millennium BC.

Dr. Ahmed Elyas Hussein

International Islamic University, Malaysia

Introduction

The Weather before the End of the Fourth Millennium BC

Early Cultures before the End of the Fourth Millennium BC

Early Khartoum    

The roots of the people of the Sudan date back to a very ancient time.These people established close and continuous relations with the frontiers of the Nile, particularly the western frontiers, where the climatic conditions were completely different from their present-day state. These frontiers at that time were much wetter and green.

The early rise of the Sudanese population andtheir cultures and civilization cannot be interpreted or understood without studyingrelations between the Sudan and these frontiers. Such study will be the answer to several missing links in Sudanese ancient history, for example:

Was the desert region between Jebel Uweinat and Jebel Marra in the west and the Nile in the east a fertile territory with rivers, lakes and a large number of populations? 

Were the early people of the Sudan and the early people in the western frontiers, more than 12 000 years ago, of the same origin?

Were there any relations between the early people of the Sudan and those of the western frontiers?

What was the role of the Saharan center Al Nabta, 100 km west of Abu Simbel, on the early history of Nubia and the rise of the Pharaonic Civilization?

Who were the founders of the A Group in Nubia? Where did they come from?

What is the origin of the word Napata? Does it relate to Al-Nabta of the western frontiers?

Were migration that founded the present day population and civilization come from the western frontiers?

Such questions cannot be answered without studying the old relations between the Sudan and the western frontiers that extended between the Egyptian oases and Tibesti in the north, and Lake Chad and Darfur in the south. This study will try to answer some questions like the first three questions above, hoping that the study will continue in future searching for answers to other questions and missing links to originate the identity of the people of the Sudan.

Introduction

The objective of this study is to focus on the role played by the western frontiers of the Nile Valley on the cultures and population of the Sudan before the end of the Fourth Millennium BC. The author believes that exploring these relations would enable us to find out our origin, roots and several missing links throughout the history of the Sudan. The role of the western frontiers on the Nile Valley was just like the role of the Arabian Desert on the Fertile Crescent.

This article studies the early cultures in the Sudan and in the western frontiers searching for the relations between the two sides and how far these relations could reflect on human and cultural formations on the Nile.

The study, in the beginning, highlighted the weather condition during that remote period, and then cultures of Khartoum, Kerma and lower Nubia were briefly presented. In the western frontiers, the study attempted to present the early cultures from Wadi Howar in the south to the southern borders of Egypt in the north. More attention was given to Nabta Playa, as an example of the cultures of the western frontier and because comparatively, there is good data about it.

In spite of the scarcity of sources on this topic in Malaysia, where I am working, I have collected some new material about the Egyptian Pre-dynastic Period and early Nubia from the Internet.     

The Weather before the End of the Fourth Millennium BC

The weather in the continent of Africa before several thousand years was completely different from its present day condition. Before about 25 000 years, the weather was wet and rainy.  There were rich sources of water such as rivers, large lakes and high levels of annual rainfall in the present day Sahara, but over the last 25 000 years, the climate in Africa was not stable, several shifts from wet to dry climate and vice versa occurred Said,1992.

Between 25 000 and 15 000 year ago, the weather became dry, lakes shrank and some rivers dried out. The majority of the Savannah and grasslands between the Red Sea and Atlantic Ocean became arid, yet, not as dry as they are today. Within these dry conditions there were wet intervals during which there were sufficient amounts of rainfall Said,1992.

Occupations during this time, particularly between the Nile and the Atlantic Ocean, were along the coasts of lakes and banks of rivers. In these dry seasons, some people moved to the Nile valley from the neighboring frontiers and returned during the wet season. These movements established close relations between inhabitants of the Nile and its western frontiers, and led to the intermingling of people in these areas from very ancient times.

Another big change occurred in the climate of Africa around 15 000 years ago. The dry tropical climate of tropical Africa gave way to wet period with a high rainfall. Water sources improved in the whole area between the tropical regions up to the Mediterranean Sea.

Water level in the lakes between the Red Sea and Atlantic Ocean increased. Most of lake Victoria floor which was dry up to about 13 000 years ago began to rise. Lake Chad was more than 12 times its present day size which is about 17 000 square miles, it extended north till the region of Fezzan, southern Libya. The Sudd region, in the southern part of the present day Sudan, was a big lake extending north up to the northern territories of Khartoum. It occupied about 140 000 square miles. These lakes, Chad and Sudd, reached their highest water levels around 10 000 years ago Said,1992.

The average of the annual rainfall between the Nile and Lake Chad was high. Khartoum received, at that time, an average of annual rainfall of about 800mm. Arkell,1955 Valleys, like Howar and El-Milk, which are now dry, were permanent running rivers.

Thus, the weather conditions were completely different from the present day. Lake Chad, Sudd Lake, rivers and the high average of the rainfall made movements and communication between the Nile and the present day Sahara easy. People between the Nile valley, Lake Chad and the western frontiers interacted closely with each other.

Early Cultures before the End of the Fourth Millennium BC

Early Khartoum    

Khartoumis considered the oldest cultural center in the Nile  Valley. The people of early Khartoum were the descendants of the San -like people, who came from the south or the southeast. They established their early occupations in Khartoum and gradually they spread northwards along the Nile Valley. 

Some of these inhabitants of Khartoum moved early to the present-day Sahara and North Africa. Archeological evidence shows that there were similarities between the inhabitants of these places and the people of Khartoum. The first and the oldest Neolithic settlement in the present day Sahara seems to be that which spread from Khartoum westwards along the shores of great lakes.[5]

The region of Khartoum , before the sixth Millennium BP, enjoyed wet, rainy weather. The annual rainfall was about 800 mm; there were swamps and grassy plains in addition to the Sudd Lake . The flood level of the Blue Nile was about four to ten meters higher than its present flood level.[6]

The early culture of Khartoum developed along the coasts of the Sudd Lake, which extended from southern Sudan  until Khartoum, and on the shores of the Blue Nile  and the River Nile. Its early human and material cultural influence extended along the Nile, North Africa and the Sahara.

Towards the middle of the Ninth Millennium BP, the first Neolithic culture emerged on the Nile Valley in Khartoum.[7] The Neolithic culture of Khartoum spread westwards along the banks of the great lakes and rivers to Ennedi, Tibesti and Ahaggar (see Map1). It became known as “Neolithic Sudanese Tradition”.[8] Archeological pieces of evidence show that these close contacts led to ethnic and cultural relations between people of early Khartoum, the inhabitants of present day Sahara and the Niger valley.[9]

Similarities between the culture of Khartoum  and several centers in West Africa, the Sahara and North Africa  could easily be traced.  For example the pottery, which was found in a grave at Grassy Valley in the Libyan  Desert, resembled the pottery of Khartoum. Amazonian beads , gouges and the incised decorations of pottery of Tibesti are similar to those of the Shaheinab.[10]

It seems that the culture of the Tibesti  flourished during the rainy period between the Twelfth and Seventh Millennium BP and its culture began to spread in the surrounding areas. Some scholars suggested that the cultural ideas from Tibesti spread eastwards, firstly to the area of Khartoum , then to Fayum in North Egypt, since the dry weather that started in the region around the Seventh Millennium BP.[11]

The people who founded the Ibero-Maurisian culture around 13 000 BC share some similarities with the inhabitants of early Khartoum. It is suggested that “they may have come from the north of Neolithic Sudan.”[12] It is also suggested that the early black inhabitants of Khartoum moved westwards along the banks of the great lakes. Their culture there was known as “Neolithic Sudanese culture”.[13]

It seems that ethnical and cultural influences of the people of Khartoum spread widely in the region of the present day Sahara. The oldest Neothilic ceramics in eastern and central Sahara was of Sudanese inspiration. The pottery, which dated to about the ninth millennium BC was similar to that of early Khartoum,[14] and that of the seventh millennium BC in the region between Ennedi and Hoggar, which was probably made by “black people related to the Sudanese of early Khartoum”.[15]

The hunter-gatherer communities throughout the territories of the Nile, the western frontiers and the neighboring Sahara (see Map1), gather together around sources of water, they moved in a vast area between the Nile in the east, Hoggar in the west, the Niger in the south and the Mediterranean Sea in the North. These close contacts led to ethnical and cultural similarities throughout the area of their movements.[16] 

The Culture of Kerma

Several early cultural sites were discovered to the North of Khartoum. These discoveries revealed the development of early cultures prior to the third millennium BC such as the sites of El Kadada, El Kadero and Kerma.

The site of El Kadada about 160 km north of Khartoum (4 000 - 3 500 BC) contains several thousand graves. Tombs were arranged to reflect the social position of the dead in their communities. Some burial sites suggest family and extended family graves. Burial sites in El Kadero, north of Khartoum, suggest social stratification. Among the grave offerings of El Kadada was amazonite, which was brought from Chad.[17]

It indicates the early contacts and commercial relations with the western frontiers. The site of Kerma, 16 km south of the Third Cataract, is one of the most important ancient sites of the Sudan in which excavation works are still in progress. Kerma was probably the capital of the first Sudanese state.[18]

The oldest part discovered in the site of Kerma which is known as “pre-Kerma settlement” gave a radiocarbon date about 4 800 BC. Discoveries in this site include remains of fifty houses (huts) some of which were small (3x305 m) others were bigger (7x7.5m). Different types of houses indicate social differences among the people.[19]

Another important ancient site in Kerma region is Wadi El Khowi. It was an old bed of  the Nile about  ten kilometers east of Kerma. Several human  settlements  around  5 000 BC emerged on its banks.[20] More than thirty cemeteries were identified in the site some of which have over 1000 graves each. Grave offerings show that communities lived a high social hierarchy.[21]

The graves of the people of Kerma indicate that their economy was developed. This development was probably due to their wide activities in trade. The location of Kerma near the mouth of Wadi Howar, the tributary of the Nile that came from the western frontiers, enabled them to be involved actively in trade with central Africa. They played an important role as mediators between the Nile valley and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Cultures the First and Second Cataracts

Cultures of this region, which extended from northern of the first Cataract to the south of the Second Cataract, have exceptional importance in the understanding of the origin and the rise of the first Pharaoh dynasty in Egypt on one hand and the foundation of the Sudanese civilization on the other hand.

From about 25 000 BC onwards the environment in the region of the cataracts started a series of changes that led to the present situation.  Human activities started very early and continued until the rise of the first Pharaoh dynasty in Upper Egypt.

Several early occupation and settlements were identified in this region. For example the remains of the early settlement of fishermen at Wadi El Kubbaniya, to the north of Aswan, dated to about 18 000 BC.[22] Numerous grinding stone and sickle plates were found in Tushki about 13 000 BC.[23] The inhabitants of the region made use of a geometric microlithic technique, which is considered among the oldest in the world.[24]

Qadan culture, to the north of the Second Cataract until the town of Tushki about 250 km to the south of Aswan, developed in around 12 500 BC. People there might have lived in stable social groups and established territories. They might have also revered cows,[25] the same practice which was noticed in Nabta about 2 000 years before the rise of the Naqada Culture.

The site remains of Arkin, to the west of the Nile near Wadi Halfa, about 8 500 BC was probably seasonal camp, the tools were similar to those of the western frontiers which shows early contacts between the hunters of the western frontiers and the people of the Nile.[26]

The site of Shamarkin, in the same area, shows changes in the way of life of people about 8 000 BC, possibly as a result of pressure from new influences from the western frontiers. The presence of amazonite beads, from the western frontiers in the remains of the Shamarkinians confirmed these contacts.[27]  People from the western frontiers   began to move between the western frontiers and the Nile during the dry phases of the early Holocene. Shamarkinians from about 5 750 to 3 270 BC lived in comparatively large communities which were “brought about by the introduction of agriculture and animal domestication after 5 500 BC.”[28]

About 4 000 BC Abkan culture emerged in the region of Wadi Halfa. It was a long development of Qadan culture, and was later adopted by A-Group. Abkan graves are very rich with weapons and pottery; their remains occupy both banks of the Nile.[29]

The A-Group culture emerged in the region of the Cataracts. They were given this name by Reisner, the first archeologist who uncovered their remains in 1910 because of “uncertainty concerning their origin and their sudden disappearance after the first dynasty”,[30] and because it was “the earliest culture he had found in lower Nubia”.[31]

The remains of the A-Group were found between the First and the Second Cataracts from the middle of the Fourth Millennium BC. Some scholars made the first phase of the appearance of the A-Group in the beginning of the Fourth Millennium BC in Khur Bahan south of the First Cataract.[32] The second half of the Fourth Millennium BC witnessed a decrease in rainfall in the western frontiers that led to the movements of people from Nabta and neighboring territories to this part of the Nile valley. During this time, A-Group culture developed and extended to the south of the Second Cataract.

A-Group culture, as suggested by Midant-Reynes, developed from Qadan culture. It shared several similarities with other cultures of the Nile valley and western frontiers. Some of the A-Group burial traditions were like those of El-Badari, Nabta and Naqada cultures. Their stone tools and pottery were typical to those of the Amratians.[33] The A-Group were very similar, in their physical characteristics, to the pre-dynastic Egyptians and were influenced by Naqada culture (Internet).[34] Was the A-Group culture a continuation of the Naqada culture or was it a distinguished culture?

Regarding the origin of the A-Group some researchers suggested that they belonged to the original people who lived in the Cataracts region. The inhabitants of Khur Bahan, where the earliest A-Group remains were found, present the prototype of the communities, which spread in the region of the Cataracts.[35] Other researchers looked at A Group people as distinct, politically, linguistically, culturally and perhaps ethnically, from the inhabitant of the northern part of the Nile.[36]

Regarding the question of the origin of the A-Group people and their culture, we have to consider three important points. Firstly: literary archeological evidences, for more than 4 000 years before the rise of the dynasty, show a unique close touch throughout the Nile between Khartoum in the south and Abydos in the north. Funeral customs, pottery, stone and later material instruments were similar if not identical in the whole region.[37] “The common cultural origin must not be overlooked”.[38]

Secondly: early and ancient history of the Nile valley was greatly influenced by the western frontiers, this is just like the role of the Arabian desert in the history of the fertile crescent. Large movements of populations took place from the western frontiers to the Nile valley. It is suggested that the basic population of the Nile came from the western frontiers. There is no evidence that the population of the northern parts of the Nile had been different from those from the southern parts.[39]

Thirdly: the people and cultures of the western frontiers influenced almost all the pre-dynastic cultures on the Nile such as Badari, Naqada, Amra and Gerza. It is accepted that the people who founded the Badari culture were already established Neolithic communities; they came to the Nile from the western frontiers.[40]

Migrants who came from the western territories of the Nile valley and emerged with the indigenous people of the Nile originally founded the Naqada culture.[41] Petrie described the descendants of the late Gerzeans as having “a refined face with long straight nose, recalling the Libyan of the mountain.”[42] Some scholars suggested that the Gerzeans might have come from the western frontiers.[43]

Amratians were identified as immigrants from the western frontiers.[44] They were very similar to the people of Gilf Al-Kabir and Jebel ‘Uweinat. Their Microlithic tools and pottery belonged to the nomad descent culture, which is called the Saharan Culture.[45] Libyan influence was very clear on the Amratian people several hundred years after their settlements on the Nile valley.[46]

Therefore, the A-Group could have originated on the Nile with great cultural and human influences from the western frontiers. Arkell stated that their representatives today “stretch from the ‘Ababda in the north to the Somali in the south.”[47]

According to the findings in A Group tombs at Gustul, Sayala and Afya, some scholars believe that they united lower Nubia under their rule establishing the first kingdom in the region. This kingdom was about two centuries earlier than the first Egyptian kingdom, which united upper and Lower Egypt in the close of the Fourth Millennium BC.

The Western Frontiers

The major climatic change that reshaped all the western frontiers of the Nile and led to the foundation of the present day situation occurred between, about 7 000 BC and  2 500 BC. This period is called Neothilic sub-Pluvial.

Rainfall during the Neothilic sub-Pluvial was more intense, it developed the cultures and civilizations of the western frontiers of the Nile, which enhanced and helped in the rise of civilizations of the Nile Valley. Rich grasslands sprang up on the vast stretch of the western frontiers of the Nile, and human occupation and settlements developed throughout these territories. Some scholars called these western frontiers “The Newly Greened Sahara.”[48]

These are the areas where the work of archeologists, such as Wendorf and Schild, “have raised hopes and demonstrated the presence of sophisticated agricultural and pastoral like style in the desert before Egypt ever embarked on her course towards village life”.[49]

It is generally accepted that cattle was first domesticated between 9 000 – 6 000 BC in southwest Asia or southeast Europe. Archeologists in the western frontiers of the Nile discovered large bovid bones which gave radiocarbon dates 7 500 - 6 000 BC[50]. This date indicates that the western frontiers, which are now arid area and sand dunes, contributed very early in the foundation of human civilization.

These western frontiers of the Nile valley, which lie between Siwa oasis in the North and Jebel Marra in the south, can be divided into three main divisions (see map 2).

The first division in the northern part consists of Siwa, Fayum, Bahriya, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharja Oases. In the middle, lies the second division which consists of Gilf Kabir, Bir Tarfawi, Bir Sahara, Jabel ‘Uweinat, Duqul Oasis, Napta Playa, Selima Oasis and Grassy Valley. The third, and last division, in the south comprises of Laqiya Oasis, Wadi Ga‘ab, Wadi Huwar, and Jebel Marra.

The fist division has been well studied compared to the other two. Its role and impact on the ancient cultures in the Nile valley, to the north of Aswan, was also comparatively, brought to light. Water sources were abundant and rich during the Neothilic sub-pluvial and in some places even after that, like Kharja Oasis, which was still a lake until 2200 BC.[51]

Archeological pieces of evidence show human occupation in those areas several thousand years before the rise of the dynastic period in Egypt. They also show some similarities between these cultures in the Western Sahara, central Sahara,[52] and the cultures of early Khartoum[53]. Some scholars suggested that the people who founded the Badari culture on the Upper Nile migrated from the desert.[54]  

In this division the relations between the Egyptian oases on one hand and the Upper Nile in Egypt and Khartoum region on the other hand were comparatively studied. The formation of the Egyptian Civilization began to be recognized by scholars. The aim of this paper is to highlight the cultures of the other two civilizations.

The second division comprises of Gilf Kebir, Jebel ‘Uweinat, Bir Tarfawi, Bir Sahara, Nabta Playa, Dunqul oasis, Grassy valley, Laqiya Arbain oasis and Selima oasis. The northern part of this division, which lies on the present day southern borders of Egypt, found considerable attention from the researchers. Good data, which sheds light on early cultures of some parts of this division, like Nabta Playa, is available.

On the contrary, the southern part of this division, which lies on the present day southern borders of the Sudan, like Selima oases and Grassy valley, there is almost no data available about it. The early cultures of this part are almost absent in research works.

Water sources in this division were abundant. In central and Northern Sudan, the average of the annual rainfall was greater than that of Upper Egypt.[55] Some scholars suggested that the southerly rain belt, during that time, extended to the north as far as Luxor.[56] There were many seasonal pools or playa and permanent lakes in the present day oases such as Laqiya, Selima, Napta, Farafra and Dunqul oases.

There was permanent water at Salima and permanent lakes near Merga in the northern Sudan, about 500 km south of the Egyptian border[57]. Excavation works in Wadi el-Akhdar and Wadi Bakht, near Jabel ‘Uweinat, discovered beds of large playas dated around 8 000 BP and lasted for about 5 000 years. In Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara, before the Neolithic pluvial 7 000 – 6 000 BC, the average of the annual rainfall was between 250 – 600 millimeters.[58]

Hunters and gatherers communities lived in these territories thousands of years before the rise of the dynastic period in Egypt. There were rich water sources, flora and fauna. Different kinds of animals lived on the Savanna vegetations, which were abundant throughout the region. The remains of the fauna identified in the area of Jebel ‘Uweinat dated to 5 700 and 3 200 BC, included Elephants, Bovids, Gazelles, Addax, Ostriches, Jackals, Wild Asses and Goats. Wendorf pointed out that: “There are also significant traces of domesticated species of sheep, goats, cattle and dogs.”[59] 

It is now accepted that food production and Neolithic tradition in general started in the western frontiers earlier than the Nile valley, and from there it moved westwards.[60] Neolithic sites in this division are comparatively old; some of them dated back to the Seventh Millennium BC. The most famous among these sites is Nabta playa, which we will take as an example of the centers of the western frontiers to find out whether it can link some of the missing links in the ancient history of the Sudan.

El Nabta Playa

The present day desert area, which lies between about 100 and 250 kilometers to the west of Abu Simbel, played an important role in the history of the Sudan and Egypt, in the pre-dynastic and proto dynastic periods. It seems that this role started from the beginning of the Holocene rain in the region between the ninth and Eighth Millennium BC. Early sites in this area are identified as El Adam type (7 500 – 6 900 BC) and El Ghorab type (6 600 – 6 200 BC). Both of them are classified as “early Neolithic type”[61]

El Nabta  Playa is the most famous and important site in this area. “It is a huge playa more than 100 square kilometers and about 100 kilometers to the west of the Nile  on the southern borders of Egypt”.[62] The area of El Nabta was surrounded by several centers of rich water sources such as Kharga oasis in the North, Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara in the West, Dunqul oasis, the Nile, Laquiya Arbain and Selima Oases in the East and South. It seems that this geographical location helped El Nabta to be the most populated center in the region. (See Map 2)

The basin of El Nabta playa was founded after the Tenth Millennium BC. The first human occupation of El Nabta took place about 9 300 BC. [63] It is suggested that these first inhabitants originated in Arkin, on the Nile valley near Wadi Halfa in Northern Sudan, because their tools were similar to these of the Arkinians. The artifacts that were found in the sites of El Nabta indicate that the occupations of these first inhabitants were seasonal camps.[64] People migrate from the Nile in the rainy season and return to it after the rainy season ends.

Occupations and settlements in El Nabta playa lasted for about two thousand years during which the Nabtans developed their economic, social, religious and possibly their political systems. History of Nabtans was closely connected to and highly influenced by the continuous fluctuation of the climate throughout these two thousand years. The weather was generally wet with sufficient annual rainfall, but there were several intervals of dry periods during which the majority of the inhabitants, sometimes all of them, returned to the Nile.  

The Paleolithic  hunting and gathering way of life “gave way to a Neolithic farming and herding economy based on the cultivation  of barley and the domestication of sheep, goat and cattle”.[65]Cattle remains in El Nabta  are regarded as domesticated  cattle; they were probably present around 7 000 BC or perhaps even earlier. It marks the beginning of the African cattle pattern.[66] The Nile valley could possibly be the origin of the wild cattle of El Nabta. Based on the findings on the Arkinian site, about 8 000 BC old, it was suggested that “it is not impossible that an incipient domestication of bovids was introduced from the Nile valley into the eastern Sahara, as a result of contacts between the Saharan hunters and the riverine populations.”[67]

The plants identified at El Nabta include dom palm, date palm, two varieties of barley, one domestic the other wild, four weeds and sorghum. “The domestic barely is the earliest confirmed domestic plant of Africa.”[68]

The average date of five sites associated with early Neolithic  is around the end of the Seventh Millennium BC.[69] The earliest sites contain large bovid remains and artifacts such as grinding stones and shreds of pottery. The pottery is well made, its exterior surface decoration looks like that of early Khartoum . “These assemblages have been classified as the Al Adam type of early Neolithic . Several radiocarbon dates placed the complex between 7 500 and 6 900 BC.” [70]

Radiocarbon sites in El Nabta between 6 100 and 5 900 BC show well-organized settled communities. Their houses were built in a good order and they had varieties of food. Life in such communities suggests the necessity of some kinds of social control. One of these sites consists of: “A series of shallow oval hut floors ranged in two, possibly three, parallel lines. Beside each house was one or more bell-shaped storage pits, nearby were several deep and shallow water-wells.... Several thousand remains of edible plants have been recovered from these houses floors. They include seeds, fruits and tubers representing forty-four different kinds of plant, including sorghum and millet. Chemical analyses by infrared spectroscopy of the lipids in the sorghum indicates that this plant may have been cultivated.” [71]

The more humid and rainy weather in the Sixth Millennium BC led to the appearance of larger settled communities, this is known as middle Neolithic  period. There are remains of large settlements along the beach line of the larger playa, and small camps on the areas beyond the basin.[72] This suggested the continuous interaction between the inhabitants of the playa from one side and those of the Nile and the Bedouins of the surrounding areas from the other side.

“Various house types are represented…. Some are circular and semi-subterranean, some slab-lined and others appear to have had walls of sticks and clay.”[73] Houses in one site, as stated by Brass consist of: “Two straight lines of fifteen oval round-shaped brush or mat covered huts, as well as three walk-in wells.” [74]

Before the middle of the Fifth Millennium BC, a short period of aridity occurred during which the area was probably abandoned. When the rainfall increased after the middle of the Seventh Millennium, people returned to the area starting the late Neolithic  period in the Playa. [75] The late Neolithic  communities of El Nabta  displayed “signs of social systems laying the foundation of organizational control not present in the contemporary Nile valley communities.” [76]

A Megaliths founded in El Nabta , dated from the middle of the Fourth century BC, are suggested to be as ‘proxy tombs ’ built in honor of the society’s elite member who died outside El Nabta. No similar structure is known on the Nile  valley or in the Sahara.[77]

The Megaliths may suggest evidence of hierarchical society and possible political control about the middle of the Fourth Millennium BC. Social control and hierarchy in El Nabta  predate evidence of similar development on the Nile  valley. It is possible that El Nabta played an important role in the emergence of social complexity in Pre-dynastic Egypt. [78]

There are several similarities between the lives of the people of the Nile, before the beginning of the pre-dynastic period,  and the life in the centers of the western desert. The pottery of the late Neolithic  era in El Nabta bears great similarities with the pottery of the early Badari. Nabatian pottery was also similar to that of early Khartoum. The Nabatian arrowheads were similar to those of al-Fayum.[79]

Cattle worship was the pillar of the religion of the late Neolithic inhabitants of El Nabta. Skeleton remains of cows were found in several graves, which suggest the worship of cows. It seems that this practice originated in the upper Nile, where people of Qadan, around the Twelve Millennium BC, revered cows, this was further developed in El Nabta and became an important part of the religious life of the pre-dynastic and pro-dynastic periods in the Nile valley. In addition to that, the shape of the pyramid and the majority of the Neolithic  tools can be traced back to the west of the Nile centers.

Several scholars suggested that large numbers of migrants moved from the west  desert towards the Nile . They mixed with the people on the Nile and made several changes in their lives, such as changing the dominant food style from the terminal Paleolithic to Neolithic type. Changes that these migrants made led to the foundation of pre-dynastic communities on the Nile.

In his answer to the question about the possible influence that El Nabta  could have played on developing Egyptian  communities on the Nile  valley, Brass stated that:   “The old theory that the social complexity spread from the older civilization of Mesopotamia  into Egypt  via the Nile  Delta  is no longer regarded as valid.”  He added: “although the economies of the Nile valley  and the desert had structural and functional differences, yet they provided mutual support for each other.” [80]

Continuous interactions and similarities in the cultures of the two regions are very obvious. This can be seen more clearly under the discussion of the centers of the Nile valley.

The third division includes Jebel Marra, Wadi Howar, Wadi El Melik and Wadi El Mugaddam. This region has an essential importance on the Early cultures of the central parts of the Nile. History of the Nile valley, between Khartoum in the South and Aswan in the North before and after the rise of the dynastic period in Egypt, cannot be interpreted and understood without a thorough study of this region.

Archeological and historical data about this part is poor. We don’t have much information about its early history until the last decades of the twentieth century when some data became available. Thanks to the work of archeologists and archeological societies, in England, France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and USA, which brought to light some of the early cultures of this region.

This region had abundant and rich water sources. Beside the considerable annual rainfall, the valleys such as Howar and El Mugaddam were permanent rivers. Wadi Howar (or the Yellow River as it was named by Rudolph Kuper) was one of the long tributaries of the Nile. It was more than 1 000 km in length, running from the Chad region northeast until Dongula on the Nile valley. It has been dry for about 3 000 years.[81]

Wadi Howar had rich water sources in the Chad region; these were Lake Chad and Lake Ennedi (which is now dry). Recent research proves that Wadi Howar was “a series of at least episodically interlinked lakes up to the second millennium BC.”[82] Human occupation along the banks of Wadi Howar started in the year 8 000 BC and continued until 1 000 BC. This date suggests old links with early Khartoum and Kerma cultures. Around the year 6 000 BC, people along the banks of Wadi Howar seem to have already been using pottery.[83]

Population groups on Wadi Howar lived on the abundant resources of hunting, fishing and cattle. Records show that the occupation and settlements had a large number of people. Recent researches “ have revealed traces of many complex, previously unknown ancient cultures.” [84] Wadi Howar was considered as an important corridor between the Nile valley and Sub-Saharan Africa. Its people were active in trade, they carried Sub-Saharan commodities to the north and played a role in the interaction of different cultures between the Nile valley in the east and Lake Chad, Ennedi and Tibesti in the west and northwest.[85]

Information about Jebel Marra, Wadi el-Melik and Wadi el-Mugaddam is still limited. Available information shows that there was early human occupation in Jebel Marra.[86] Wadi el-Mugaddam, which was once a branch of the White Nile, flowed north through the Bayuda Desert until the bend of the Nile east of Wadi el-Melik.  Archeologists found fish bones and fresh water shells on its bed, which supports the suggestion of early occupation and settlements along its banks.[87]

Conclusion

If the old proverb says “Egypt is the Gift of the Nile”, then the new proverb, according to Rudolph Kuper says: “Egypt is a Gift from the Desert”[88]. To be more precise here, in this paper, we can say: “the Sudan is the Gift from the Western Frontier”.

Unlike the present times, the Nile, during the time of early Sudanese cultures such Khartoum, Kaderu, Kadada, Kerma and Arkin cultures, had several tributaries coming from the western frontiers. These early tributaries of the Nile are represented now by dry valleys like Wadi al-Muqaddam, Wadi el-Milk and Howar. There were also lakes and seasonal water sources in these western frontiers.

These water sources facilitated life for a dense population who intermingled with people of the Nile. This led to the establishment of a community with a common culture and ethnicity. This can be clearly observed through out this study.

After the end of fourth millennium, the weather began to change gradually to its present day dry conditions in the western frontiers. Nevertheless, these changes did not end the close contacts between the people of the Nile and those of the western frontiers. We assume that these close relations played an important role in shaping the history of the Nile in the following centuries.

We may search for the cultural and ethnical impact of Nabta playa on the A-Group, and similarly, the cultural and ethnical role of the western frontiers on the history of the Sudan until the coming of Islam. I highly encourage researchers to direct their attention towards studying these relations to re-write Sudanese history and originate our true identity.

References 

R.Said 1992,“Chronological Framework: African pluvial and glacial epoch ” in J. Ki-Zerbo ed. General History of Africa I:  Methodology and African Prehistory. (Oxford: Heinemann International Literature and Textbooks).  385-386; D. Olderogge (1992) “Migrations and ethnic and linguistic differentiations” in J. Ki-Zerbo ed. General History of Africa I: Methodology and African Prehistory. p. 275; B. Messerli, M. Winiger and P. Rognon (1980) “The Saharan and East African uplands during the Quaternary” in Martin A.J. Williams and Hugues Faure eds. The Sahara and the Nile: Quaternary environments and prehistoric occupation in northern Africa. (Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema)  123.

R. Said 1992, “Chronological Framework. p 385; D. Olderogge (1992) “Migrations,123, 128.

A.J.Arkell 1955,The History of the Sudan : From the Earliest Times to 1821. (University of London) .7, 33