Human history until the emergence of civilizations

Human history until the emergence of civilizations

"A study in physical and cultural anthropology"

D. Osama Abdel-Rahman Elnur and Dr. Abu Bakr Yusuf Shalabi

Ga / Valletta / Malta / 1995

This book represents introductory research prepared to meet the needs of Arab university students studying social sciences, as well as the desire of the reader interested in anthropological issues in general. The book begins by presenting a specific problem that can be summarized as follows: If we, human beings, were not able to emerge from the beginning of the primates, was it possible for us to develop our cultures? If our ancestors had not developed their cultures, would it have been possible for us to develop our physical form to reach where we are now?

Therefore, this book represents an attempt to provide basic information and the main ideas on which anthropology is based, in its physical and cultural-social branches, in order to clarify the ambiguity surrounding the history of human beings.

The first dilemma in dealing with human history is related to the problem of determining the age of the human race. Research into human history leads to searching for the history in which the human-like species branched off from other species in the higher order of mammals. When human-like creatures passed that branching point, they were left with only one of two possibilities: either they became human or they were unable to survive. In fact, the only type of human-like beings that has continued to exist is the human species, and the only type of the human species that has continued to exist is the rational human being.

The book raises a common question that Arnold Toynbee summarized in his book “The History of Mankind” by saying: “Can we determine the beginning of human history by resorting to one or more of his distinctive anatomical characteristics? Is this possible by tracing the history of his distinctive habits and achievements? Is it permissible to say that the history of human beings derives its beginnings from the moment of the appearance of beings who practiced a terrestrial life, not of an arboreal nature? Is it valid to assume that the history of human beings began when they acquired the ability to walk and run on two legs? Their front limbs for purposes other than walking on them? Did the history of man begin when his brain grew, not only in the sense that he became larger in size than other human-like creatures, but also became more organized as the number of alternative methods among them increased? Or do we think that it is preferable to exclude all of these hypotheses? In favor of a different hypothesis that refuses to date the emergence of man based on an anatomical feature, or the achievement of a specific achievement, and proposes an alternative that sees in consciousness the event that announces the beginning of human history? Is reading the history of consciousness, according to this hypothesis, only possible from the material remains left by the first human ancestors? Therefore, the available possibility is to guess the history of consciousness within the limits of the anatomical development of human beings and their acquisition of certain social achievements and technologies We reject all of this to say with those who say that writing is the beginning of human history?

In an effort to reach a meaningful answer to this question, the authors divided the book into sections and chapters, taking into account the necessity of adhering to a logical sequence of ideas. In the first chapter of the first chapter, they discussed the general concept of anthropology, the history of its emergence as an independent and self-contained science, and its goals and applications. They also pointed to the relationship of anthropology with other sciences. It is clear that the goal of this chapter is to introduce the student, who is studying anthropology for the first time, to the basic terms and concepts of this science.

In the second chapter of the same section, the authors discuss anthropology as a study related to human beings and their primate ancestors. Here the book referred to the two branches of anthropology: physical anthropology, which is the study of human beings as an animal species and is primarily concerned with human diversity and human evolution; Cultural anthropology is the study of what humans have learned so that they can adapt to their environment. In this chapter, reference is made to various fields specialized in physical anthropology, including comparative genetics, growth and progress, the study of ancient human forms based on fossilized bones (paleontology), human osteology, and primatology.

The book indicates that the search for the cultural remains of ancient humans is through excavation, which is a task undertaken by archaeologists, who in turn are divided into two groups: historical and pre-historical. Historical archaeologists work in studying the remains of ancient civilizations, while others work in studying more recent stages, in some contemporary sites, and in exploring the depths of the seas and oceans.

For their part, prehistoric archaeologists work at sites that span a very wide range of time, from those societies that did not know writing that currently exist in some parts of the world, to those of human-like creatures dating back a few million years. Recently, a new trend has emerged among prehistoric archaeologists, which is to emphasize a more rigorous scientific approach and to emphasize the study of contemporary societies to enable them to interpret the events of the past.

In this chapter, the authors address two terms that have the same meaning: human-like being and human. The definition of the first term is close to the definition of the second, but the latter includes the phenomenon of a complex brain capable of accomplishing abstract thinking and communication through symbols and culture.

In the first chapter of the second chapter, the authors point out that the concept of evolution as we know it today can be traced directly to developments in enlightened thought over the last three hundred years, especially the contributions of Linnaeus, Lamarck, Buffon, Lyell, and Malthus, who left their mark on the work of Charles Darwin. The year 1859 represents a watershed for the theory of evolution, as it was in that year that Darwin's work, “On the Origin of Species,” crystallized the evolutionary process (particularly with regard to the important role of natural selection). Controversies continued inside and outside practical circles for several periods and are still taking place in some corners. But the theory of evolution radically changed the tide of enlightened thought. Charles Darwin's formulations of the evolutionary process were gradually accepted by scientists as the basis for all biological sciences, including physical anthropology. The contributions of geneticists in the twentieth century help demonstrate the mechanism of evolution in a way that neither Darwin nor his contemporaries knew.

Natural selection is the central, crucial element influencing the long-term tendency of evolutionary change. The ultimate differential success in reproduction can be explained by how natural selection works.

In the second chapter of this second chapter, the authors address the two types of cells: somatic and sexual. The first consists of our bodies, while the second only transmits genetic information. Somatic cells divide through mitosis to produce two cells that are completely identical and identical to the parent cell. The sex cells divide twice through meiosis to produce four gametes. Meiosis is known as a meiotic division because the diploid number of chromosomes (46) is reduced to the haploid number (a complete chain of 23 chromosomes). There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human cell, two chromosomes in similar locations, of which 22 pairs are called homologous, and the twenty-third pair is the sex chromosomes. The genetic information is contained in the double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Genetic information is taken from the nucleus to the cytoplasm via messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA). The ribosomes in the cell translate the messenger RNA, and attract the nucleotides of the transfer RNA, which in turn transfer amino acids to the ribosomes to form a polypeptide chain (or chains) of amino acids, which is the protein that makes up most of the cell structure and performs most of the cell's metabolic functions. The gene is not a direct unit, but rather a regular sequence of DNA codons that determine the specific sequence of amino acids. The equation (one gene = one polypeptide chain) is used to define a gene in some cases.

After the authors have completely completed the cycle, as they began in the first chapter of the second chapter by discussing evolution by talking about populations, where evolution specifically occurs, they return to saying that populations consist of individual living organisms, and living organisms are composed of cells, and cells contain chromosomes, and chromosomes are composed of DNA. Understanding the actual mechanism of the evolutionary process comes only after understanding all these different levels of organization, which is what they begin to address in the third chapter of this second chapter.

In the second chapter of this third chapter, the authors attempt to trace the evolutionary history of human origins, which go back to primates between 10-70 million years ago. The ancestors of early primates starting in the Late Cretaceous were more than insect eaters who adapted to an arboreal life. In the Paleocene, more specific primate tendencies began to emerge, while retaining many “primitive” traits. In the later Eocene era, the diversity of primates is observed, as Timur-like creatures and early ancestors of the Tarsier begin to appear, beginning their evolutionary emergence. To this date, it seems, the early origins of the anthropoids go back.

In the ancient world, the Oligocene era reveals a large number of potential anthropoid ancestors in the Fayoum. As for the Miocene, it reveals a huge complex of hominid forms that are divided into an early African group (the tree ape) and a later Asian group (the rama monkey). While there is little evidence linking these forms of fossils with great apes and with humans, relative evidence indicates that the rama monkey is related to the ancestors of orangutans. Where then are the ancestors of African great apes or even the ancestors of humans? The authors tried to address this topic in the fourth chapter of the book.

In the third chapter of the third section, the authors tried to clarify the fact that the dual, biological and cultural nature of human development necessarily requires testing both biological and cultural information equally. Hence, the paleoanthropological approach (the science of ancient anthropology) is characterized by the integration of different sciences and links many scientific specializations with the aim of reconstructing the anatomical structure of early humans, their behavior and their environments. This task therefore centers on the skills of geologists, paleoanthropologists, paleoecologists, archaeologists, and physical anthropologists.

Much of what we know about the origins of human culture between one and two million years ago comes from archaeological excavations led by Mary Leakey in the Oldui Gorge region of East Africa. The well-documented stratigraphic frequency and well-preserved state of the remains at Oldway Gorge, together with the various dating techniques used, make them a great source of paleoanthropological information. The sites excavated in the region have yielded a wealth of fossilized animal bones, in addition to artificial materials that reflect human behavior. The ecological recombination of habitat and food sites indicates in some detail the evolutionary process affecting early human populations.

Archaeologists have more potential to interpret the bones and stones of early populations through experiments. Much light has been shed in recent years on tool-making techniques and on the elements that influence bone maintenance. In addition, anthropologists use archaeological techniques to help expand our understanding of contemporary behavior through systematic analysis of waste.

In the first chapter of Chapter Four, the authors study humans that walk on two legs and have a small brain, the remains of which were discovered in South Africa. The discoveries of Raymond Dart and Robert Broome confirmed the mosaic nature of human evolution. Australopithecus were truly human, as evidenced by the details of the pelvis, limbs, feet, and spine. In addition, the structure of the skull and teeth also confirms the human features of these shapes. Austral apes are divided into two main groups: the strong and the slender, and the distinction between the two groups is based on body size and tooth proportions. Attempts to distinguish between the two groups led to the emergence of a number of theories, three of which the authors discuss in this chapter: the monospecies theory, the nutritional hypothesis theory, and the theory of the hypothesis that there is one genus but two species. The authors point out that each of these theories has something to say, but they point out that appropriate biological principles make the latter theory more objective and reasonable at the present time. Hence, in their opinion, there were at least two types of hominid that lived in southern Africa in the pre-Pleistocene stage: the South African (thin) ape and the strong southern ape.

Due to the absence of an approved chronology for this type of information, it is difficult to answer how these human fossils fit into a coherent scheme of human evolution. For this type of information, it is necessary to pay attention to East Africa, where the discoveries made during the past thirty years have forced a complete re-evaluation of all previous discoveries from South Africa. Then, in this chapter, the authors sought to clarify that East Africa contained many pre-Pleistocene human sites over a period from about five million years ago until about one million years ago.

The huge amount of fossilized material of pre-Pleistocene humans in both southern and eastern Africa has created great excitement, as whenever new evidence is revealed, more questions than answers arise. Some additional complexities are discussed in this chapter: (1) the continued presence of the southern African ape in East Africa concurrent with the southern barking monkey and early humans; (2) Early humans contemporary with australian apes in South Africa; (3) The early appearance, about one million six hundred thousand years ago in East Africa, of Homo erectus; (4) Pre-Pleistocene humans outside Africa.

The authors point out that attempts to explain all of these observed differences in the fossilized material of pre-Pleistocene humans have produced a number of alternative theories. Among all these theories, the authors do not find a theory that has complete factual support. They therefore believe that more evidence may force researchers to fundamentally reevaluate in the future. What is important in all of these discussions, in the authors' opinion, is the way in which fossilized human material is used to reach biological inferences regarding the mechanism of human evolution.

In the second chapter of Chapter Four, the authors discuss the problem of Homo erectus (also known as ape-man). This human represents the second stage of human evolution and is usually associated with the middle Pleistocene, although it appears long before that date. The beginning of the Middle Pleistocene has been pinned to the Paleomagnetic Matoyama-Bronze boundary (seven hundred thousand years ago).

Homo erectus remains come from three continents. On the continent of Asia, there are two locations: Java Island and China. Europe contains three sites that provided material for human skeletons: Heidelberg, Vertsulz, and Petralona. The authors discussed two European sites that contained cultural material but were missing bones: Torralba/Ambarona in Spain, and Teramata in France. In Africa, there are three regions for Homo erectus: North, East, and South Africa.

In the third chapter of the fourth chapter, the authors discuss the appearance of Homo sapiens for the first time in about three hundred thousand years ago, which is considered to possess the distinctive features of both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, a transitional species between the two forms. Early Neanderthals existed in the greenhouse phase, followed by transitional forms that evolved, for the most part, toward anatomically modern Homo sapiens (who certainly existed in the Upper Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago). During the early Ice Form, Neanderthals, more specialized than other Homo sapiens species, appear in Western Europe and the Near East. Human remains contemporary with the Neanderthals have been uncovered in northwestern, eastern and southern Africa. The authors say that, according to some paleoanthropologists, many African forms can be considered anatomically modern populations, and they are older than the appearance of anatomically modern humans.

In this chapter, the authors raise many questions: What is the line of qualitative evolution from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens? Was this transition rapid (detailed balance) or gradual? What was the role of classical Neanderthals in the evolution of anatomically modern humans? Is there a relationship between anatomically modern Africans and the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of Europe? Did anatomically modern humans migrate to Europe to, in some way, replace the Neanderthals? What is the relationship between Upper Paleolithic technology and Middle Paleolithic technology?

The first chapter of Chapter Five is devoted by the authors to studying the origins of human behavior. Humans are primates and evolved from them. Hence, anthropologists believe that studying the behavior of non-human primates helps in studying the origins of humans and expands the possibility of understanding human behavior. Accordingly, in this chapter, the authors present a specific model for the origins of human behavior that was proposed by researcher Love Joy, which for his part emphasizes a number of fundamental differences between both human beings and non-human primates. The authors believe that this model proposed by Love Joy may help shed light on how primates can be exploited to better understand human evolution. LoveJoy, on the other hand, attempts to hypothesize some specific behavioral developments in our early human ancestors. In this regard, the authors, despite their disagreement with these hypotheses, do not deny the fact that such arguments carry a degree of benefit as they help demonstrate how different models can be used in the process of reconstructing human evolutionary history.

In the second chapter of Chapter Five, the authors address the problems of culture in terms of concept, definition, nature, and characteristics. The authors start from the logical premise, which is that culture is an acquired behavior, that is, it is a behavior that is acquired through learning, not through genes, and that culture contains non-material tributaries such as language, art, religion, values, morals, etc., that is, it is an acquired phenomenon, not inherited, that includes customs, traditions, and behaviors... the behavioral patterns of a group of people, their way of life, and it is also a human adaptation strategy with the aim of survival.

The third chapter of Part Five covers methods for studying culture, that is, the partial branches of cultural anthropology. The authors address the sub-field of sociocultural anthropology and the basic issues of this field. They also summarize the subject of archaeological research by addressing archeology issues and concepts, and they also address anthropological linguistics through study and explanation.

In the sixth chapter, and through three chapters, the authors study the cultural history of the Paleolithic Age. In the first chapter of the chapter, they address the cultural patterns that characterized the Lower Paleolithic Age, while in the second chapter they address the early forms of the economy, the discovery of fire, and the emergence of regional differences in patterns of adaptation in the Middle Paleolithic Age. They devoted the third chapter to the era of Homo sapiens, the anatomically modern sane person, presenting models of adaptation in the Upper Paleolithic.

As for the seventh and final chapter, the authors divided it into three chapters, the first of which dealt with the cultural history of the Mesolithic era, since the world had witnessed, about ten thousand years ago, massive climatic shifts that in turn led to modifications in geography and in the image of animal and plant groups. It seems that these transformations had important effects on human beings, especially on their economic livelihood. Post-Pleistocene patterns of human adaptation in the Old World were expressed through new technologies and more intensive exploitation of local resources, a way of life that came to be known as Mesolithic. Central cultures in Northern Europe continued to develop specializations associated with hunting, gathering, and fishing for many centuries, while concurrent cultures in the Near East began successful steps toward transitioning to food production... steps that led to the emergence of a more stable lifestyle characterized by a degree of self-sufficiency in the Neolithic period, which the authors discuss in detail in the second chapter of this chapter.

In the final chapter, the authors discuss the emergence of civilizations as further evidence of post-Pleistocene adaptation patterns that followed technical achievements in the field of agricultural food production. Early civilizations flourished, especially in the floodplains on the banks of the major rivers: the Tigris and Euphrates, the Nile River Valley, the Indus River Valley in India, and the Yellow River Valley in China. Cities, monumental architecture, the discovery of writing, trade, social hierarchy, and the development of the arts and sciences contributed to laying the foundations on which humanity’s cultural heritage depended.

Natural socialist societies

“An analytical study of the development of technology, economy, and culture in prehistoric stages.”

D. Osama Abdel-Rahman Elnur

Perhaps one of the redundancies of the speech is to say that issues related to the emergence of man and the development of his technology and economy in the prehistoric stage have been dealt with in many Arab university books. However, this prompts us to point out that these books have dealt with the study issues, for the most part, from a geographical-historical point of view. This is because the study of historical geography, as the distinguished professors Muhammad al-Sayyid Ghallab and Yousry al-Gohary pointed out, includes four basic topics. First, the evolution of Earth and life since their origins; Secondly, the development of the current geographical theater; Third, the emergence of man from the animal world and his development as a complete, rational being who creates civilization. Fourth, human interaction with the environment.

There are also other books available in the Arab Library that deal with the study of these issues from the anthropological point of view, which focuses its attention on studying two basic topics: the first is: the origin of man, his development, and his diversity as a biological being; The second is: the concept of culture, its construction and development.

This book represents introductory research designed to meet the needs of Arab university students studying history. Therefore, the book attempts to present the basic information and ideas on which the study of the prehistoric stage is based, that is, that historical stage prior to man’s knowledge of food production and writing. The book, then, deals with the historical period that received the term “Stone Age.”

In his study of the prehistoric period, the author relied on the archaeological phased division of the Stone Age, which has become approved and recognized and is widely spread in specialized scientific fields of various stripes and trends. This archaeological phased division of the prehistoric stage is based on the basic materials and methods used in the manufacture of production tools. This division divides the following stages:

1. The Lower Paleolithic Age, within which some subdivisions are proposed

Lower Paleolithic

Middle Paleolithic  Middle Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic era

2. Mesolithic

3. Neolithic

For the historian, the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age do not constitute merely an “age of cut stones” and an “age of polished stones,” but rather constitute two stages in the development of primitive humanity, two different stages in terms of the development of productive forces. However, this archaeological historical division, even if its details are viewed as stages of the development of technology, economy, and primitive culture, remains relatively narrow and incomplete in most books on historical geography and general anthropology. Therefore, the true division of primitive history must necessarily include the development of social relations and the development of forms of social organization as stages of the development of the primitive clan co-production method.

The book provides a treatment that is consistent with the principle of historical treatment. The history of primitive society occupies a time span extending over more than two million years, passing through several stages in its development, each stage of which is clearly distinct from the others. Therefore, the book starts from the fact that understanding the history of primitive communal society and its stages is impossible without establishing a scientific phased division of its development.

In its first chapter, the book attempted to address the basic sources that the historian relies on in studying the prehistoric stage. Redrawing a picture of some aspects of the lifestyle, social relations, and forms of social organization constitutes a difficult and complex dilemma for the prehistoric stage, where the researcher is limited to dealing only with “dumb” archaeological data. The book was interested in treating not only archaeological sources, but also ethnographic sources. The author also tried to provide a comprehensive presentation of the concept of archeology, its methods and research methods, as well as an explanation of the concept of ethnography and its issues.

African archaeology