The Sinarian Funj Kingdom

Submission and thanks

I

Meroitic era. The extension of the Funj Empire, and the distinctive duality of its nature due to geographical factors: The early history of the region: The Kingdom of Meroe: The soldiers escaping from Psamtik: The tribes mentioned by Pliny: The list of places he mentioned, taken from Aristoceron, Peon, and Juba: An attempt to identify those places and the method used for this purpose: The places north of Meroe, Petronius’ campaign: and the soldiers of Nero: Ptolemy: The places south of Meroe: The Pune Journey northward from Sympopitus, located near Wad al-Hadad: Asar and Daru: Garuda: The Second Part of the Pune Journey: The End of the Kingdom of Meroe: The Ezana Inscription and Another Inscription Found at Meroe. (Pages 1-20 in the English original) Early history of the areaSoldiers fleeing from Psamtik

II

Christian kingdoms. Roman borders: The introduction of Christianity (ca. 540 AD): Baqt: The kingdoms of the Nobadians and Makurians (ca. 650 AD): The sections of Noubatia (Al-Maris): The borders between Noubatia and Makuria, and between the latter and Alwa: Little is known about Alwa: The clerical organization of the two kingdoms (diocesan): The difference between the northern (non-rainy) region and the south: The end of Christianity in the north (ca. 1320 AD): The apparent decline of the kingship of Alwa To Kushah (Mount or Kusa?): Description of Soba: The Final Fate of Soba, and of Christianity in the South (Persia): The Establishment of Islam in the Sixteenth Century. (Pages 20-29 in the English original)

III

North Funj District. Northern border: duality of desert and rainy areas; And bilateralism in the last region. Dongola: Fixing the borders: Extension of the region: Description of the Dongola region and the different regions of Shayqia: Subdivision of the Dongola region into two parts at Tete Island: The northern part (Argu, Dunmiri, and Maqasir): The southern part: Palaces of the leaders: Other important places (Al-Khandaq, Old Dongola, Al-Dabbah, Kurti): The described palaces (Tengasi, Abkur, Dufar): Al-Hatana, Ambkul. Al-Shayqiyya: The origin of the tribe: their distinct castles from earlier castles: the splendor of the region: its four divisions, its rulers and their castles: Dajer, Bakhit Castle, and Kajbi. Al-Manasir and Rabatab: extension and border points: Al-Kab: Moqrat Island: the area south of Abu Ahmed. (Pages 30-52 in the English original)

IV

Southern Funj District. The effect of the bend of the Nile. Berber: Reasons for its importance: The first mention of it: The plan of the houses and their origin: The affiliated villages: Ras al-Wadi. Al-Dahmer: A well-governed hierarchical society, according to Burckhardt: no castles. Shendi: Its actual and theoretical extension. A meeting place for caravan routes and an important commercial center: Al-Bawab: Shendi Kings: A center for merchants: The Kingdom: Nature of the population: Goods sold in the market: Suakin merchants: Horses and gold: Matama: Saints who lived in the region. Qary: Difference from Shindi: Reasons for its importance: Extension of the region of Abdallab sovereignty: Why was Sennar not subject to Qary? The ancient site of Qari and the cemetery of Ajeeb: Halfaya: Arbaji: Bruce and its sheikhs in 1772: Arbaji, the first city of Abdallab, which was followed by Halfaya: Saints and their places: the southern border. Sennar: the land beyond the Nile Valley, in the rainforest region: the island of Hawa and its regions; Al-Ailfoun and the cemetery of its saints: The Dome of Sheikh Idris: Abu Haraz, which was important at a certain period: The villages between Wad Damani and Sennar (Saba, Dolip, Muna, Taiba, and Dalabbas, Basbush): The island villages (Aboud, Shadli): Mount Moya and Mount Saqdi: Kayo’s visit to them: Sennar, its location and why it was a capital: Description of the current location, the end of the old city: The Blue Nile to the south of Sennar: Khashm al-Bahr: Arabs of the lands Rain: Fazughli: mink and skullcap or Qarun: gold: trade across the region. Anqasana Hills and Mount Qali. White Nile. Al-Ais, Al-Fung Castle: its demise. (Pages 53-84 in the English original)

Meroe Island. Name, extension and nature of the area: The main centers: The island in irrigated times: Agriculture and pastures: The size of the Bedouin unit depending on the political circumstances: Shah al-Din, the founder of Shukria: His successors, especially Nile: A tribal mountain: Al-Batahin: Shukria in the times of Bruce: Tiawa Al-Qadarif and Bruce: Hoeglin and Baker about Al-Qadarif: Its sheikhs: Al-Qalabat (Elephant’s Head, Al-Matma): Bruce’s description: Its trade and trade routes through it: Changing the Abyssinian borders : Iqamat Al-Takrur : Al-Qalabat is a neutral area between the Turks and the Abyssinians: The visit of Baker and the German missionaries, and his general remarks on the subject: The Atbara Valley and Kassala. (Pages 85-98 in the English original)

The land of Beja. The Beja are the Blemites: Al-Yaqubi's description of the regions of the Five Kingdoms of Beja (ca. 872 AD): (1) A wide northwestern region, with its center at Hagiar or Hajar: Discussion of the location of this place, which remains uncertain: Eight tribes in the region, only two tribes (Hadarab and Zanafij) are not identified: (2) Basalin, between Barka and the Red Sea, whose name remains (Basla) in the land of the brown. Amer: (3) Bazen, between Baslin and Alwa, now Al-Baasa, between Marib and Takazi, a (Nilotic) region other than Bejawi: (4) Jarn, between Badi and Basil on one side and Baraka on the other side, possibly the coastal plain (Samhar): (5) Qataa, between Badi and Faykum (unspecified): Ibn Hawqal’s (ca. 977 AD) description of Beja: the fertile triangle.  (Pages 99-108 in the English original)

Palo and brown amer. The land of “Beni Amer” between Barka and the Red Sea (Baslin and Jarn) is the most “difficult” area linguistically and not cohesive: the Semitic migrations to the Hamitic region: the different forms of the Balu and their derivations: they are not the Balu of the Idrissi: the Persian Blues and the Palau of the Abyssinian Annals: the name was not invented by the Abyssinians because it was also found in Sudanese and Bejawi sources, and therefore it is an original tribal name: “Yalawit Kakan”: the Balu tribe beyond Massawa (Mansfield Parkins) and their military nature: The Palouz are probably a ruling class of Arab immigrants who were followed by other Arabs (Nabatab) who became the Beni Amer, both groups prevailing over the indigenous population: The traditional Beja account of the Amer founding the tribe: The date is about 1600 AD. Or a little before that: The tribal center in Donguaz: The Palouse left a great name in the region: Al-Baluz Al-Fares (1520-7): Pais and Al-Baluz Dqoin (Taka): Almeda (1628-43), his map showing Baloz and Funchus, his text approximating them: Al-Baluz in Suakin: Baradas (1633): Lobo (1630-40) about the kingdom of the Baloz, which could be Only Sennar: Conclusion: The Baloos must have played an important role in establishing the Kingdom of Sennar. (Pages 109-117 in the English original)

Suakin and Massawa. The Red Sea was a dead end at that time: The nature of the ports: The role of the Bedouins who controlled the supplies and thus shared the taxes: Suakin, the only outlet for the Berber region, which replaced Badi: Not an urban community: The Hadrab in Suakin, but there is no evidence of them there before the fourteenth century: The Kasha in Suakin: Allaqi gold rushes in the ninth century: The Turkish occupation in 1265-6 and the problems in Nubia: The decline of Aydhab In 1422 and the rapid rise of Suakin: The nobles there: The history of the formation of the Hadandawa: The occupation of Selim in 1517: The visit of the Orangemen: Suakin in the seventh century.

Massawa Port Episinia and why? : Name : Arquico : Lack of ports on the coast to the south : Difficulty of access : The Knight at Massawa in 1520 : Turkish occupation in 1557 : Portuguese missionaries there : Their aborted attempts to Christianize it : Why it is so difficult to control : The collapse of Turkish authority and the rise of the Palo Naib : Bruce there in 1769 : His adventures and inevitable departure : Visitors in the nineteenth century. (As a result)(pages 118-133 in the English original)

Rubini's journey. Rubini is the first traveler in the modern era to describe the region: The beginning of his journey from Suakin (1521) with a caravan heading to Asha (Usa Gurli?): The political conditions at that time in Abysinya and the surrounding area: The road from Suakin to Abyssinya: The purpose of the trip: Amara (Dungus), the ruler of the Kingdom of Sheba (Soba), i.e. Sennar: His city in Lamul and where to look for it: Rubini leaves and arrives in Sennar, "website “Abadiya”: He goes to Soba and meets Abu Kamel there: He then goes to the Kingdom of Al-Ja’al and then to Mount Ataki (Abdul-Wahhab): The arrival of Amara’s messengers and the departure of Rubini accompanied by Abdul-Wahhab: Possible gaps in the novel, covering Dongola: The Expert (Hebrew) and Al-Mama (Mount Farka) beyond the borders of the Kingdom of Amara: His arrival in Girga in Egypt: The content of his novel about the location of the northern border of the Kingdom of Sennar: Hebrew and the island of Sai: The value of the novel Rubini. (Pages 134-142 in the English original)

The origin of the fung. A problem that revolves around: What does Bruce say: Analysis of his notes: “The General Shilluk” The forces in the Nuba villages around Sennar: His confusion between two different narratives: The local Sudanese narratives, from Arousa, Jara, and Tava: A Bejawi novel: The nature of those narratives: Local Sudanese manuscripts indicating an eastern direction: Lulu = Lamul? It can be located near Al-Qalabat: People who lived on the western borders of Abyssinia: “The Ganjar Horse”: A theoretical reconstruction of events: Dongwaz near Adi-Funjiai: Abu Kamil and Al-Kamilab? : Building in Lamul before Sennar : Areas in Fazogli Province : Kili, Desa, Raqriq : Who are the savages? : A Possible Key from Archaeology. (Pages 143-155 in the English original)

Funj and Shilluk. The ancient Shilluk hypothesis is now abandoned by Arkle, but the Shilluk connections are undeniable: The confusion between the Funj and the Savages: The southwestern origin of the people of Fazoghli, as proven by the place names: Direct connections between the Shilluk and the Sennar region: Shilluk boats: Kaka and other Shilluk villages: The ancient hill villages of the Shilluk: Possible migration routes from the White Nile: A summary of Arkle's recent views. (Pages 156-162 in the English original)

Chronology. Existing king lists: Bruce's text, Ahmad's original text, and other versions: Caio's list: Dates in the Book of Classes: The possible approach upon which they were based: Rubini's revision of the lists, the Abyssinian Annals, Book of Classes, an original document from the era of Badi IV: The Caliphate of Abdallab: An attempt to compose a list: The History of Ajaib I. (Pages 163-167 in the English original)

The Arab conquest and the Battle of Al-Khannaq. The mysterious period over two centuries (1320 to 1520 AD) - a dark age in the wake of the collapse of the Christian kingdoms: The Jawibar War: Amara-Selim’s correspondences: Al-Abdullab’s account of it: Rubini’s silence regarding the mention of the Battle of Al-Khanaq: Evidence of his story about the borders at that time: An incident narrated by Al-Faris: The site of Canvila and Defila. (Pages 168-171 in the English original)

King Dekin (ca. 1561-1567 AD). Little is known about the eight successors of the architecture of Dingus: Deqin, who was famous as one of the great kings: Possible references about him in the Abyssinian sources: Difficulty in identification: No connections (?) with the area of Deqin or Deqin: Deqin is mentioned in the Fungawi genealogy and origins. (Pages 172-173 in the English original)

Sheikh Ajeeb Al-Munglik (ca. 1570-1611 AD). The first ruler about whom we truly know something specific and certain: His title and status: His long, and therefore potentially successful, reign, and his history: His family relations: His affinity with Suakin as mentioned in the Bejawi novel: The story of his love for Fatima: The origin of the people of Suakin and the explanation for their strange appearance: Al-Bani Amer’s account of Ajib: The story of the Suakin Road and Mount Ukir: His achievements and the mosques he founded: The end of his reign and his death in the Battle of Karkoj, possibly near Khartoum: Adlan's March through Dongola: Wonderful Caliphs. (Pages 174-179 in the English original)

First Abyssinian War. Abdul-Qadir and his escape to Abyssinia with Ali: Adlan: Badi I ascends the throne at the height of political power: His pursuit of a peaceful policy with Abyssinia: Al-Kasus Pelli: The beginning of the war in the summer of 1618 with a campaign against the strong fortifications on the southern border: Retribution by Badiman Al-Sinkaw: The Abyssinian campaign against Sarki: Socinius’ division of his army into three divisions for the 1619 campaign: The Abyssinian campaign on the southern border: The King Dekin and Aburomela: Walda Havariat's campaign to the Atbara River: Mallika Christos' campaign in the same direction: Taka campaign: Attack on Fatima, "Queen of Arum": her capture, conversation with Susenyos, release and return home: end of the war. (Pages 180-187 in the English original)

King Badi II (Abu Dukhun). His long and apparently prosperous reign: the exclusion of Sheikh Al-Abdlab: the Kordofan War and the establishment of a permanent army or palace guard around Sennar: the Nuba villages: the construction of Badi’s palace: reasons for accepting the Annals’ narrative. (Pages 188-192 in the English original)

Uthman Uprising (1659-1660 AD). The successful Shaiqiyya uprising against the Funj: The tribal subdivisions and their characteristics: The non-Arab element: The account in the Book of Classes and the Traditional Story: The history of the uprising between 1659 and 1680, possibly in or immediately after 1659: The Amin problem: The uprising marked the first serious break in the Funj federalism, and was a major destructive force: the end of the Shaiqiyya. (Pages 193-195 in the English original)

Ponce Provident Trip. Ounsa's short-lived rule: Poncet and Préfédent, the first Europeans to visit Sennar: Their travel companions: The journey from Egypt via the oases: Meshu, Arqou, Dongola and their king: Crossing the Bayoudah desert: Qari and its ruler: Sennar: The king's reception of them: The problem of his identity: Poncet's journey beyond Sennar: Bruce and Poncet: Wazir Badi: Rebellion of the cavalry, a general uprising led by Al-Amin from Arbeji around 1705 (?) And quenched those who thirsted for it. (Pages 196-202 in the English original)

Achaemen Expedition, Funj and Ethiopia. An untold story: The period spent by the missionaries in Sennar and Abyssinia - Comparison: Rival sects: “The Lost Catholics”: Founding of the mission in 1697: Provident’s Franciscan companions on his journey:: The king’s doctors: The governor himself leads an expedition but dies before reaching Gondar: Crump, one of the group: The conference at Sennar, May 1701: Pasquale and Josuet: The death of Francisco: Joseph of Jerusalem He succeeds him as governor: A claim to Christianize the king of Abyssinia and his return to the homeland: His triumphant arrival in Rome: Shadows of doubt: The king’s letter is ultimately proven to be a forgery carried out by Joseph: His return to Sennar and his escape after the murder of De Roule: Growing doubts: The accusation against Joseph is filed and the investigation begins: He remains in Nubia and dies there in 1710: The mission is suspended: Disagreements arise and violations are highlighted: Bruce’s description of Akhmim in 1768. (Pages 203-212 in the English original)

Crumb's journey and his journal. Crump, a member of the Franciscan mission in 1700: His book (1712) has become forgotten, but it does not lose its importance: Crump’s journey from Mosha (Moshi) through Bayna, Zafti, and Bakri to old Dongola and then, after a delay, to Dabi (Al-Dabba), the city of the Saints, and Korti: Passing Al-Bayuda: His arrival at Al-Daraira and Qari, which was Its sheikh at that time was in Arbagi: And from there south along the Blue Nile to Sennar (May 1, 1701), where he found Pasquale, the king’s physician, and Benedetto returning from Gondar: His meeting with the king: Crump succeeds Pasquale, who goes with others to Gondar: Then he sent Crump to Garri to treat the sheikh: His journey and reception: Palace life in Garri: Trial and investigation: Daily veneration of the “Mangel”: A dinner feast: The identity and name of the sheikh are unknown: The arrival of a Franciscan with a caravan: Attempts to leave and their repeated postponements: Departure at the end with a second caravan: Arrival again in Sennar, where Crump resumed practicing his profession: His patients and treatment fees: The return of Joseph from Gondar leading the remnants of the expedition’s personnel: Cancellation of a planned expedition to Gazovoli: Preparations for the final departure home: Pasquale remaining in Sennar with Benedetto, and returning to practice his profession as a doctor: Crump departs with others on June 15, 1702: The death of Antonio di Terza in Arbagi: Crump hurries to accompany the caravan he is joining in the shrine: Difficulty crossing the desert and great losses: Dinner with the king of Dongola: Flooding of the Nile: Replacing camels and other problems in Moshi: Problems with the governor and leaving for Loach. (Pages 213-226 in the English original)

Embassy de Roule. Sources of evidence: De Rawle’s last letter: The date of his murder: The circumstances and motives for his killing: De Rawle’s lack of tact: The mysterious Franciscans: The true (political) purpose of the mission. (Pages 227-236 in the English original)

Once III, Nol, and Bade IV. Badi's long rule and death. His successor, Onsa, the last in his line, was deposed by the "Lulu forces": Noll: Badi IV, Abu Shlukh: two contemporary works and their contents. (Pages 237-238 in the English original)

The Second Abyssinian War. Mutual non-warring since 1905: Yasus II, aged 21 years, attacks the southern pastures and finally Sennar (1744): His first expedition was successful, but it was followed by a sharp division in the forces, one part advanced and was isolated and divided into small groups in Ajeeb Ala Dinder: Yasus is in front of Sennar, but on the other side, and forced to retreat, returning to Gondar again on April 14: spoils from the Sennar army included Sacred monuments, restored: Battle of Ajeeb Decisive victory: Yasus' subsequent campaigns, north to the Atbara River (Balawa and Tahrur), to Saraqi (facing Jabal Musa), and south to Al-Shafer. (Pages 239-243 in the English original)

Conquest of Kordofan. Badi IV, the last ruling Funj king: The failed attack on Kordofan in 1747 until Muhammad Abu Kilik took command of the campaign: The tactics followed were similar to those used by the Mahdi against Hux Pasha in 1883: Subsequent events: The return of Muhammad Abu Kilik and the departure of Badi: The way he proceeded: Nasser’s short-lived rule. (Pages 244-246 in the English original)

Bruce's journey. Bruce, the most capable European witness, with the exception of Kayo: He stayed in the Funj kingdom for about a year: From Elephant's Head to Tiawa: Sheikh Fudail's reception of him there and his threats to him: His final departure and arrival in Sennar: The king's reception of him, Ismail: Bruce treats the king's wives and visits Adlan in Ira: Talking to the Arabs there: Ahmed, the master of the people: Bruce obtains permission to leave and sets out that same evening: He passes by Arbagi and Shendi, where he meets "Setna", the widowed king: A narrated discovery. But he does not care about the ruins: he continues on through Al-Damir to Hasa, where the long desert road to Egypt begins: his character. (Pages 247-254 in the English original)

The deterioration and collapse of Funga sovereignty. Lack of European knowledge between 1772 and 1821: Reasons for the king’s loss of control, which led to chaos: The rule of ministers initiated by Muhammad Abu Kilik (ca. 1776): His nephew Badi deposes Ismail and then fights the Shukria who defeat his army in the Battle of Mundara: Badi sets a trap for the Shukriya leaders in Abu Haraz and kills them there :  Sheikh al-Abdlab Muhammad al-Amin Mismar, with assistance King Adlan, Badi, and kills him (1780): Rajab succeeds Badi: Al-Amin destroys Arbaji (1784): Rajab is killed and is succeeded by Nasser (1785), who defeats King Adlan at Antarahna (1788) and enters Sennar and takes it captive: Nasser appoints Ukal and then the second drum of two kings, but fails to defeat Al-Amin, who is killed by Abu Burida (1790) He was succeeded by Abdullah IV as sheikh of the Abdallab: The end of Vizier Nasser, who was succeeded (1798) by his brother Idris: The end of the Abdallab plots with Abdullah’s defeat and death in Halfaya (1800): He was succeeded by Nasser (1800-1821): Chaos reigns now: Shendi disperses: Adlan succeeds Idris and then the latter succeeds Muhammad Ould Rajab, but the actual power remains in the hands of Muhammad Ould Nasser. Abu Rish: In 1808, Mohamed Ould Adlan becomes a minister and kills all of Rajab’s sons except Hassan, who finally succeeded in killing Mohamed Ould Adlan: The power struggles continue until the Turkish occupation. (Pages 255-261 in the English original)

Turkish invasion: Aswan to Korti. Kayo, the documentarian of the Turkish occupation: Ismail leaves Aswan in the second half of 1820: Arqo submits, but the Shaygiyya resist and are defeated at Korti (November 4th): Incidents of the battle and the attack on Mount Dajer and its capture: The reasons for the defeat of the Shaygiyyah and its decisive role in subsequent history. (Pages 262-265 in the English original)

Turkish invasion: Jurf al-Hamdab up to Halfaya. Ismail leaves Jurf al-Hamdab on February 21, 1821, accompanied by Kayo: Dongola Island, Karbakan, Wadi al-Arqu, crossing the desert to al-Baqir (February 27): Turkish forces spread over an area of 140 miles within the country: confronting Berber (March 5): Interview with Mek Nasr al-Din: A list of Berber kings acquired from a Faqra: Dongola’s horses: A tiger arrives in Berber And his surrender, but he was received coldly: Kayo obtains Ismail’s approval to march south, in search of jewels and pyramids and leaves Berber on March 21: Field archeology at the forefront of the army: Meroë: Aborted plot: Kayo joins the army in Shendi (May 9th): Surrender of the Shaws (May 15th): Qari, and Halfaya: Kayo meets Sheikh al-Abdlab, who surrenders (May 25).(Pages) 266-273 in the English original)

The end of the Sennar Kingdom. The Turkish advance continues from Halfaya (May 27): A description of contemporary events in Sennar: The Ould Adlan conquests and the temporary alliance with Hassan in the face of a common enemy: Hassan was killed by Loadlan at the end of May: The Battle of Gondal near Sennar between Hassan and Ould Adlan’s followers (June 1): Hassan, despite his victory, flees from confronting Ismail: Badi, Makk of Sennar, surrenders, and Ismail enters Sennar victorious (June 12) 1821. (Pages 274-275 in the English original)

Complete defeat.  Divan Effendi captures Ould Adlan's killers, two of whom were killed by impalement (July 3rd), which aroused terror and hatred in Sennar: Al-Kogia Ahmed leads an expedition to Mount Bouk and returns with the slaves: Kayo's description of Sennar, Badi and Nimr: Ismail consults Bruce's travels and tests them: Diwan continues his slave campaigns in the White Nile (August 22nd - September 9th): The failures of the Turkish army and the dissatisfaction of the citizens with the arrival of Pentar. Ibrahim accompanied by additional abstracts (October 22): Arrival of the boats from the Fourth Cataract. (Pages 276-280 in the English original)

Fazoghli campaign. Preparations for a new advance: Ibrahim moves (December 5, 1821) to the southwestern mountains, with the goal of reaching the White Nile Central point for the movement: Ismail follows him (December 8) in the same direction in search of gold: Al-Karbin: Mek Fazogli is ready to surrender: Barbaric transgressions committed by the Turks against the peaceful inhabitants of the mountains: Kayo holds a dialogue with Hassan, Matak Fazogli, at Tormuka and Fazogli (January 5-6) 1822): Ibrahim fell ill and returned to Egypt with Doctor Rishi: Ismail continued his advance to Al-Toumat (January 12, 1822), committing crimes against humanity on his way: Kashanjaro, Abkulji: Gold washing, from Abu Kulji to Sengwi (February 5) and Ghubisha (February 7): Counterattacks and scarcity of ammunition prompt an order to retreat (February 11) Reaching Adasi in the Blue Nile (February 14) : Kayo leaves and arrives at Sennar by boat (February 26) where he receives news of Ibrahim's army, now led by  Tusun Bey: Ismail's achievements. (Pages 281-286 in the English original)