Ancient Sudan up to the Fall of the Christian Kingdoms

The first group 3800 - 3100 BC.

The first continuous agricultural tradition in Africa, the Sudanese-Saharan Neolithic, developed about ten thousand years ago in a place west of Nubia that is now desert. The Nile Valley in Egypt was inhospitable, but in the dry channels of the Second Nile Cataract, peasants learned to control portions of the river's flood waters. This knowledge could later be applied in Egypt, leading to the recurrence of the cultures of early Upper Egypt.

Upper Egypt became wealthy and its culture again expanded into Nubia, where renewed connections with the south led to the emergence of the first commercial Nubian culture, the so-called First Group. Trade goods were transported from Nubia to the north, including incense, copper, gold, and semi-precious stones, and manufactured items and possibly agricultural products were imported into Nubia from Egypt.

Surprisingly, the Oriental Institute mission working in Qastal revealed evidence indicating that early pharaohs ruled Nubia in the First Group period on the current Sudanese border. A cemetery composed of huge tombs contained evidence of enormous wealth, depictions of rulers, and records of the victories they achieved. Other images and edifices were identified, and in the process, a lost kingdom, called Ta-Sti (Land of the Bow), was uncovered. In fact, the Qastal necropolis leads directly to the emergence of the first massive Egyptian royal edifices. It is possible that Qastal in Nubia served as a throne for the founding dynasty of Egypt.

The third group in Nubia 2300-1500 BC.

Life changed in Nubia during the period between 3100 and 2300 BC. About the state of prosperity that characterized it in the days of the first group. We know of a small population and one large city where copper was smelted for export.

Around 2300 BC, in the Sixth Dynasty, a new culture emerged, which archaeologists call the Third Group [for a more detailed discussion of the origin of the Third Group]. Cows played an important role in this culture, as is the case among the Nilotic tribes of South Sudan and in many African societies. The people of the third group settled permanently along the Nile from Aswan to the Second Cataract, and a culture closely associated with it was established in northern Sudan, especially in Kerma, south of the Third Cataract. When Egypt disintegrated politically, the people of the third group entered Egypt as shepherds and soldiers. In some cases, they reached high ranks in Egyptian society and played a very important role in the conflicts that led to the establishment of the Middle Egyptian Kingdom in about 2050 BC.

We know from the biographies of the rulers in Aswan, around 2300 BC, that the population south of Aswan was concentrated in four emirates. One of these emirates, the Wawat, later gave its name to the whole of Lower Nubia, the area between the first and second cataracts. While a second emirate, Yam, was the predecessor of Kush. In the era of the disintegration of Egyptian unity, around 2250 BC. Lower Nubia had its own local pharaohs. To the south of Aswan, they were stationed in four emirates

The third group is well known from its cemeteries, which are tightly enclosed by stone circles. Obelisks were placed next to these circles, some of which bore images of cows engraved on them, and pottery vessels, some of which were masterpieces of Nubian pottery art. tightly packed with stone circles

Kerma and the rise of Kush around 2000-1550 BC.Regarding Kerma and Kush

Egypt occupied Lower Nubia in about 1950 BC, and the occupation lasted until about 1700 BC. The third group retained its cultural identity under Egyptian occupation, but the land of Kush to the south and the Medjay in the eastern desert remained independent. Kush, greatly influenced by the Medjai, became a major power in the south, and when the unity of Egypt disintegrated again, around 1700 BC. Kush included Lower Nubia with its third group population and Egyptian garrisons. The loyalty of the population and soldiers shifted to the southern ruler, who portrayed a pharaoh.

Most traces of the early Kerma or Kush culture are found south of the Second Cataract, especially in the huge capital at Kerma, with its central temples, elaborate smelting and industrial equipment, dwellings, and enormous royal mounds. Its magnificent pottery was exported as far north as the Egyptian delta, and in some cases carried north by traveling officials and soldiers. Monuments of Kerma cultureThe huge capital in Kerma

Eras of Egyptian occupation

The Middle Kingdom of Egypt 1950-1700 BC.

The New Kingdom of Egypt 1550-1100 BC.

The two stages of the Egyptian occupation of Nubia differed significantly. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian garrisons remained inside the fortresses, and the population of the third group did not change much due to the colonial occupation.

After the bitter conflicts that ended the second transitional phase in Egypt's history, many issues and customs became virtually no different from those prevailing in Egypt. Much of the enormous Egyptian influence must have existed long ago in Nubia, since the understanding and rapid adoption of Egyptian culture in Nubia was a unique event in the ancient world. Egypt spent a lot to bring about this change, building many temples complete with chariots, such as the Temple of Abu Simbel, which quickly became religious, cultural, political, and economic centers. In the following centuries, this investment bore fruit as Nuba defended the Egyptian religious faith against the forces of distortion, and against foreign occupation in the Nile Valley time and again. Nubia defended the Egyptian religious faith

Kush Empire

Between 1100 and 750 BC. Little is known about Nubia, but after 750 BC. A new Kushite kingdom emerged at Napata near the Fourth Cataract and grew rapidly into a massive empire. To the south, Meroe (Capuchin) was founded. In the north, Egypt disintegrated into parts under Libyan rulers, and the Kushites extended their power to control Egypt north of Thebes, the center of worship of the god Amun in Egypt, who was also the favorite god of the Kush. Piya, the most famous of the Kushite pharaohs, unified the Nile Valley from the Mediterranean Sea to Meroe (Capuchin), establishing one of the greatest states on the African continent. He and his successors became known as the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt. One of his successors, Taharqa, was a great builder, and the Kushite rulers led Egypt in the last stages of its wonderful creativity, which reached its peak in the sixth century BC. But when Kush tried to stop the Assyrian advance westward into Asia, Taharqa and his successor Tanut Amani were defeated, and the Kushites were expelled from Egypt in about 650 BC. The Kingdom of Kush in Sudan remained a great state for a thousand years following the decline from Egypt. A new Kushite kingdom in NapataOne of Piya, the most famous Kushite pharaohs

Meroitic era,about 200 BC. – 300 AD

The actual capital of Kush was established at Meroe (Capuchin) at an early date, although its kings built their pyramids near Napata until about 300 BC. Meroe became a great city with industrial complexes and huge temples, with an inner city containing palaces, a shrine with a large pool and columns from which water spewed, and above that there was also an observatory.

Many important centers were established on the Meroitic island, as well as temple complexes dedicated to gods bearing Meroitic and Egyptian names. The most important Meroitic deity was Abadamak, usually depicted with a lion's head, who became one of the greatest official state gods. Meroe's most notable industry is iron making. The Meroe site still contains huge slag mounds, and recent archaeological excavations have uncovered parts of furnaces used to smelt iron ore. Temples dedicated to gods bearing Meroitic names

Meroe's policy in the north was directed at providing support for uprisings in Upper Egypt against foreign rulers, such as the Persians, Ptolemaic Macedonians, and Romans. After concluding an agreement with Rome immediately after the year 23 BC, the Meroes were able to settle near Aswan, heralding the beginning of a new era of prosperity for Lower Nubia. The wealth generated by trade enabled Nubia to achieve some of Nubia's remarkable achievements in the field of art and crafts. The culture, like that of the main Kush center at Meroe, was Pharaonic in character, and the decorations on pottery and other small objects were in keeping with what was considered appropriate in those traditions. The Meroes living in Lower Nubia, in turn, built small pyramids of brick, and decorated their chapels with statues and carved edifices. Conclusion of an agreement with Rome

Post-Meroe era (called Anonymous Nubian Group)

Blemeons, ca. 250-500 AD

Kingdom of Nobadia: about 350-550 AD

At a time when Rome was in a state of turmoil, and Meroe in a state of disintegration, groups arrived from the east of the Nile known to the Greeks and to the Arabs as Beja, and quickly succeeded in controlling a large part of Egypt and Lower Nubia. Although they were expelled from Egypt, they were able to establish themselves in the Nubia region, directly south of Aswan. Although they continued to embrace the religion of the pharaohs, their rulers used the Greek forms of contemporary Roman imperial titles.

To the south of the Blemmyes, the Meroitic region of Lower Nubia collapsed in about 300 AD, and around 375 AD, the Kingdom of the Noubadians, now known as the Nubia, was established with its capital near the current Sudanese-Egyptian border. The huge tumulus of the kings of that kingdom in Plana and Qastal contained enormous wealth, represented by crowns, jewelry, and many weapons, including African spears and swords, which are currently in the Cairo Museum. Like the Meroe rulers, the Nobadians used Egyptian symbols and worshiped ancient gods. They joined the Blemmyes in attacks on Upper Egypt in defense of the ancient religion against the new Christianity.

Christian Nubia, ca. 550-1400 AD

Nubia first became a Christian in the era of the Roman Emperor Justinian, but immediately after that, the Arab-Islamic conquest came to Egypt, and the Nubians were isolated from direct contact with the Christian world to the north of the Mediterranean Sea. The first attempts of the Muslim Arabs to conquer Nubia failed, allowing the various Christian kingdoms of Nubia to remain independent for centuries, and they even reached a lucrative agreement with the Caliph. At times, Christian Nubia became powerful and was able to intervene on behalf of the Coptic Christians in Egypt and even to own territory in Egypt. In the 12th century, the power of Christian Nubia was broken by a series of campaigns and invasions by Arab tribes. By about 1400 AD, Christian Nubia disappeared and the Nubians completely converted to Islam.

Conversion to Christianity was an essential catalyst for a series of cultural achievements. Christianity required the building of churches, written texts in Greek, Egyptian Coptic, and ancient Nubian, in addition to inspirational educational decorations. Christian scenes and symbols were largely derived from the traditions prevailing in Egypt and the Mediterranean world, but Nubian artists and architects added their own details, plans, compositions, and measurements, enabling them to create a unique formal art. One of the greatest medieval frescoes was made on the walls of Faras Cathedral, which was saved by the Polish mission to remain in the Sudan National Museum of Antiquities and the Warsaw Museum.

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