Современное состояние и провлемы изучения истории Напатско - Мероитского царства
И.С.Кацнельсон
Translated by Osama Elnur
The current situation and problems of studying the history of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms
Isidor Savic Katsnelson
Translated by Osama Abdel-Rahman Elnur
On the question of naming Meroe studies
Characteristics of written sources
Historical recording of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms
The emergence and establishment of the Napata Kingdom (tenth century - mid-eighth century BC)
The prosperity of Napata and the united Egyptian Kushite state (mid-eighth century - mid-seventh century BC) The prosperity of Napata and the united Egyptian Kushite state (mid-eighth century - mid-seventh century BC)
The political (governmental) and economic structure of Kush
Outstanding issues and tasks for the future study of the history of the Napata Kingdom of Meroe
On the question of naming Meroe studies
Meroe studies were established as a stand-alone, independent scientific branch primarily thanks to the successes of archaeologists, after World War II ended, and thanks to historians and literary scholars studying ancient Sudan and northern Nubia. The growth of the national liberation movement, of course, contributed to this, as it stimulated the aspiration to understand the ancient past among national intellectuals, which greatly stimulated the development of research in this direction. However, the birth of Meroe studies may be traced back to the publication of Griffith's foundational works, which revealed the key to reading Meroe texts Randall-MacIver and Woolley, 1909. Randall-MacIver and Woolley,1909
What is the concept of the term Meroe studies? Is it only the history of ancient Sudan and the history of its culture after liberation from Egyptian sovereignty until the collapse of the Meroe Kingdom (that is, from approximately the tenth century BC until the middle of the fourth century AD), or does it include the history of this country from the earliest times until the Aksumite occupation of it?
Apparently, he prefers to adopt the latter. Until the time when Dunham considered it reliable and legal to call the country by its old actual name “Kush” (Dunham, 1947), the country was called “Nuba” at times and “Ethiopia” at other times, which has no basis either historically or geographically, and in addition, it led to confusion since the name “Ethiopia”, for example, was applied not only to Sudan (see Osama: Kush is the mother of Nubia). Now, when the ancient history of this country was revealed As a branch of knowledge, the term “Meroe studies” naturally becomes more appropriate than the term “Kushite studies,” for example, because if we use the latter, we will again be subject to confusion: a belief may arise that the discussion is about the study of all the Kushite peoples. Likewise, the designation “Nubian studies” is also incorrect, as Nubia was mentioned for the first time in Strabo’s work (Part 17, 1, 2). Quoting Aratosphene, who speaks directly about the “unsubjugated Nubians”, in this specific sense we must understand that the reference is to the inhabitants of the “Nilotic Ethiopia” of the Greeks, i.e. Kush. Osama considered: Kush is the mother of Nubia
Restricting the concept of Meroe studies only to the period of the existence of the Napata-Meroe kingdom would not be correct, because the long period preceding its emergence is organically and inextricably linked to it. The artificial sorting of Meroe studies into a separate section not only complicates the work of researchers, but may create a frequency and sequence that is unrealistic from the logical point of view of the historical process. In fact, it is impossible to understand the legality of the emergence and development of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom, and it is impossible to evaluate the characteristics of its culture, without taking into account the historical fate of the country in the previous era. It is possible that a term other than “Meroe Studies” could be proposed [Hintze had suggested that the term Meroe Studies should include only the study of the history, archeology and languages of the Napata-Meroe era, as a branch of the ancient history of Sudan Hintze, 1973], but, in any case, it would have to match it in content. Then we conclude by saying that it is correct to call “Meroe studies” a complex branch of knowledge that studies the history of Kush, the history of its culture, its religious beliefs, its antiquities, and its language from the pre-captive era in Egyptian history until the Axumite occupation of Kush.
Characteristics of written sources
In this review, however, it is worth pausing to discuss only some issues, related to the study of the late period of the history of Kush, that is, the period of the existence of the Napata-Meroe kingdom. In order to understand what has been achieved at the present time in this field, it is necessary to determine the characteristics of the written sources available to us, and also to determine what was available to previous generations of historians (summaries of the latest findings obtained by archaeologists are published by Professor Lechlan in the Orientalia magazine published in Rome).
The most information is contained in the annals of the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (sometimes called the Ethiopian dynasty, although it is more correct to call it Kushite) and the annals of some later kings, which were revealed in the temples of Gebel Barkal and Kawa. With significant interruptions, these annals cover the period from the 30s of the eighth century BC. Until the third century BC. It refers to the change of rulers, the ceremonies associated with choosing heirs, military campaigns, relations with the priestly class, beliefs, and so on. From these annals it is possible to extrapolate some details about the continuity of the common tribal structure, the worship of different gods, etc. By comparing the language and the style of orthography in the inscriptions, it is possible to notice the gradual increase of local ethnic elements, with their cultural and linguistic characteristics, and their weak links with Egypt.
It is worth bearing in mind that the Kush texts written in Egyptian, composed in the style of the annals of the Egyptian pharaohs, do not always reflect the specific characteristics of Napata and Meroe. It contains stereotypical formulas, titles of job ranks, Egyptian titles, etc. Most of the events and incidents of a general governmental nature are depicted on the walls of the capital's temples in Gebel Barkal, in contrast to the texts of the regional temples in Kawa.
Despite their limited number, the texts in the Egyptian language from Gebel Barkal and Kawa remain, to this moment, essential sources for the history of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms, especially their internal (local) history. This is because the Meroe language is still difficult for us. Zavadovski and Katsnelson, 1980. What is known about it is nothing more than fragmented words, and only personal names and geographical names can be read. In the long inscription of Akindad some success has been achieved in arriving at an understanding of the general meaning, while the largest inscription, the stele of King Tanidamani, completely defies attempts at reading. The basic body of text - funerary stelae and sacrificial tablets - is stereotyped and monotonous. Provides limited material on physical geography, economics, and religious perceptions. Titles and job titles are not clear in all cases. Therefore, the information that can be extracted from them is not much, and the same is true for the Demotic and Greek inscriptions, which are also monotonous. Only a few of them, such as, for example, the inscription on the island of Philae belonging to the ambassador Passana, who was sent to Rome, contain valuable information, not available from another source. The latter, together with the Demotic legal protocol documents, sheds light on the uprisings against foreign occupation, which broke out in Upper Egypt with the support of the Kushites, especially during the Ptolemaic era.
The Annals of the Aksumite King Ezana, written in Greek with a text in the Geos language, represents the only document available so far detailing the collapse of the Meroe kingdom. It clearly indicates the course of the campaign and talks about the events associated with it.
As for the first Meroe papyri at Qasr Ibrim, they are still awaiting publication. Plumley, 1967
Hence, the epigraphic sources for the history of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms are extremely scarce, which can be explained not only by the lack of completion of archaeological studies in Sudan, but also by the lack of success in publishing the discovered texts. Only in recent years have lists of obelisks, both recently discovered and stored within one or another collection, begun to appear regularly on the pages of the Meroitic Newsletter. However, despite all this, the texts that were revealed through their combined use with other sources, including material culture materials, allow some important conclusions to be reached, which illuminate some aspects of the history of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms, and some features of their socio-economic formation.
Regarding the works of Greek and Roman historians and geographers, whose works contained some information about Kush, their knowledge of the geography of this country far exceeds the accuracy and breadth of their information about its history. Geographical knowledge was dictated by the exigencies of trade. Interest in history did not find practical application. To get to know a country, knowledge of the language, even initially, is not a crucial necessity: it can be skipped or a limited stock of words can be satisfied. However, in order to collect historical information, it is necessary, even if only initially, to become familiar with the local spoken language or to resort to the support of a competent translator and the ability to find a common language with the keepers of oral traditions - the priests, who are not usually inclined to deal with foreigners. All of this was not available to the Greek merchants and mercenary soldiers who arrived in Kush and served as carriers of information about it, and I do not think that they were interested in such topics. However, the writings of those historians and geographers such as Herodotus, Strabo, Didore, Pliny and others provided a lot of information. Few of these have made a personal visit to Kush, and their works have not been preserved in their entirety.
It is also necessary to take into account the tendency to portray the inhabitants of Kush in a perfected manner, especially in the works of Diderotus and Herodotus, which is linked to ancient utopian teachings. Unlike the medieval Christian utopians who imagined the existence of happiness in the “celestial kingdom,” and unlike the modern-day utopians who place hopes on the establishment of a social organization based on good will in the distant future, the Greek utopians saw the establishment of their ideal models for their countries on the margins of the world known to them, especially in the distant south, from which all the amazing goods, gold, and precious stones were brought. Contributing to such a perception was the presence of remnants of the communal tribal structure in Kush, a remnant that fascinated some Greek utopians. Great importance was represented in the fact that the Meroes were able to defend their independence in their conflict with the Persians, Greeks and Romans. This must also be taken into account
With rare exceptions, many of the historical facts contained in the works of these writers date back to later times - the second half of the first millennium BC. The historical perspective they provide is almost always distorted, but we owe them information about the lifestyle of the Kushites, their customs, their social and political organization, as well as about some historical events and facts that allow identifying the distinctive features of the socio-economic and governmental structure in the kingdom of Meroe Desenges, 1968.
Historical recording of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms
Leaving aside the archaeological study of Sudan, despite its closeness to history, which requires special attention, we nevertheless feel that there is an utmost necessity to speed up the publication of full reports on the work that has been accomplished. It is noted that until this moment (referring to the year 1981 - Arkamani) it is not possible to access the results of the research of Griffiths, Reisner, and Jarstang, let alone subsequent research. All this, of course, could not help but hinder the development of historical research, first of all the study of such questions as trade, Kush cultural connections, life in cities, the development of religious beliefs and so on.
Until recently, and to some extent currently, only those peoples whose cultures had a direct influence on Greek and Roman culture and thus on the emergence and development of European civilization were considered worthy of study. Therefore, the marginal countries of the ancient world, which felt the influences coming from the great cities of the Near and Middle East, did not attract the attention of scholars, who fell under the trend of Eurocentrism. This is precisely what made Kush not find a place in the literature that dealt with “global history” (for example, the Cambridge Ancient History Series, Historia Mundi, and others).
These same reasons have until recently hampered the archaeological study of this country and, consequently, the detection of new sources. Hence, with regard to the history of ancient Sudan, only the inscriptions of the Kush kings from Gebel Barkal were added to the works of Greek and Roman writers until the beginning of the twentieth century. Specifically, the information contained therein provided the material on which historians in the mid-nineteenth century (Burkhardt, Cayo, Hoskins, Champollion, and Lepsius) relied.
Maspero, in his book “Annals of the Kings of Napata and Meroe,” and then in his three-volume book entitled “The Ancient History of the Peoples of the Classical East,” published in Paris 1895-1899, put forward the hypothesis that the Napata kingdom was founded by the descendants of the priests of Thebes. He described the state system in Napata as theocratic. The subsequent development of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom represented, in his opinion, a decline of Egyptian civilization, resulting from racial decline due to the mixing of foreign elements, mainly Negro elements. Such a perspective, with this degree of modifications and modifications, dominated European historical writing for a long time, and echoes of it still find expression at the present time. In practice, such a perspective leads to denying the possibility of independent creativity of the Meroe state, even though it has been taking shape since the era of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. This process of formation was halted for centuries due to Egyptian aggression and the imposition of its sovereignty.
In fact, these same opinions were put forward by the author of the first book devoted specifically to the history of Kush, Müller, 1904. This small compilation work was, in its size, not up to date with the level of science even in its time, something that is explained to some extent, mostly, by its popular, non-specialized character. He based his hypotheses on Maspero and Roeder, 1906
Considerable space is devoted to the history of Kush in Budge's confusing book The Egyptian Sudan, 1907, in which he basically repeats the writings of Greek and Roman historians and the annals of the Napata kings. His perspective converges with Maspero's, but is devoid of the racist expressions characteristic of the latter's perspective. Budge,1907
At the present time, only one comprehensive book on the history of Kush has appeared so far, which is Arkell, 1961, which has been published in two editions. Despite its clear advantages, like Shinnie, 1967, it mainly follows a general educational approach, especially the latter. Both books represent the product of deep and extensive research carried out by the authors. They are full of factual material, but they are by no means complete. Arkell,1961Shinnie,1967
Arkell pays special attention to describing the most important monuments, concisely pragmatic presentation of foreign policy events, establishing chronological sequence, and so on. To explain some of the miscellaneous facts, the author cites the reasons related to foreign policy in the cases of some economic elements, but no attempt is made to explain the essence of the phenomena. Thus, for example, the end of the “Nabatean Royal Palace of Egypt” represents, in his opinion, a result of the loss of communications with the outside world and the cessation of the flow of new ideas.
There are, in fact, some papers, the authors of which set themselves more narrow tasks. Some of this research deserves high praise, although it may currently need some revisions. In these researches, a huge amount of sources were collected and subjected to critical study. But these researches relate to other stages of ancient Sudanese history - either prior to or subsequent to the Napata-Meroe stage, or they are incidental to it.
Research, at this or that level concerning the Napata-Meroe kingdom, can be classified in form into three groups:
1. Chapters or sections in works of a general nature and in excavation reports (for example, Sayce, 1911 and Crowfoot, 1911). The authors of these papers briefly trace the history of the area they studied archaeologically. Sayce,1911Crowfoot,1911
2. Brief review articles (Dunham, 1949 and Roeder) Dunham,1949
3. Articles specialized in this or that issue.
The number of such studies is very large.
Possibly, and what may seem striking and surprising, is that the first detailed presentation, although it is a brief presentation of the history of the Meroe Kingdom and its economic relations, was presented by the professor of the Russian Kazan University, Professor Khvostov, in his monograph “The History of the Eastern Trade of Greco-Roman Egypt” (Kazan 1907). His familiarity with sources and specialized literature, and his insightful critical reading, enabled him to reconstruct a documented presentation of the history of the Kingdom of Meroe, whose system of government was described as theocratic. However, he correctly noted the presence of some remnants of the tribal structure. Khvostov explains the collapse of Meroe with economic reasons represented by the diversion of trade routes from the Nile to the Red Sea. Khvostov was the first to raise questions about the organization of this kingdom and its economy, especially trade. Unfortunately, his book remained unknown outside Russia's borders.
It is also necessary to mention the special chapters in Turaev’s book “The History of the Ancient East”, who was the first to include a special chapter on the history of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom and a chapter on the Aksumite Kingdom in a prescribed university textbook. His views differ slightly from Khvostov's point of view: he gives space to manifestations of the racist vision, although this is not to the same extent that distinguished the work of Maspero and Mueller. At the same time, Turayev noted the distinctive features of the Meroe economy and the persistence of remnants of inter-clan structure, especially the Umayyads, as well as local features of Meroe culture.
Until the outbreak of World War I, two basic trends had been more or less clearly identified in the historical recording of Kush. Of course, all ramifications and diversities must be taken into account.
One trend in Meroe's history sees a path to degradation, a decline of Egyptian culture adapted by the inhabitants of Kush unable to preserve it. Another trend, starting from the facts, is closed within the framework of a pragmatic presentation of events, mainly the facts of foreign policy, and the interest in establishing the chronology of family ties, the economy, etc. This is of primary importance, but it cannot become the ultimate goal of historical investigation. The truth is, here we find in some cases statements that carry the spirit of those who, in evaluating history, proceed from premises that say there is an innate racial perfection and lack of perfection for this or that people. It is impossible, at the same time, not to acknowledge that an objective critical analysis of the facts in the works of researchers who advocate this trend leads in many cases to very useful conclusions. An example of this is the work of Reisner, who, on the basis of discoveries he made in the royal tombs at Napata and Meroe, attempted to reconstruct the history of the two sites: Reisner, 1919 and 1923. Reisner,1919
Based on the incorrect interpretation of some of the facts he observed, he assumed that the founders of the Napata Kingdom were a family of Libyan origin. Then the question arises about the inability of the local population to establish a state independently. The truth is that Reisner refrained from resorting to statements of racial incompetence, but he nevertheless issued the judgment that the collapse of Meroe resulted from the decline of Egyptian civilization due to the mixing of black-skinned Negroes who did not possess “creative impulses.” In general, his contributions to the construction of chronology were great.
Recently, the most convincing indicator of the growing interest in the history of Kush has been the tremendous increase in the volume of research that has deepened the study of some basic issues, for example the causes and circumstances of the collapse of the Meroe Kingdom or its role in the development of the culture of the African continent Shinnie, 1967, Trigger, 1969, and Hofmann, 1971. The evidence for this is not only the articles, which appeared in ever-increasing numbers in magazines specializing in ancient oriental studies, especially Egyptology, but also the establishment of periodical publications devoted to the history, antiquities and languages of ancient Sudan - the “Kush” magazine (it should be noted that the aforementioned Kush magazine, which was issued by the Sudanese Antiquities Service to cover the ongoing work in the field of field research, has unfortunately stopped publishing due to limited resources, which has made the situation more difficult as reports on ongoing field work have become It is published in very diverse and dispersed magazines and periodicals, which represents one of the main motivations for issuing Arkamani (hopefully it succeeds in gathering the diaspora - Arkamani). In the past two decades, comprehensive reports of some archaeological missions have been published, which were prepared in accordance with the latest high-end scientific requirements: “The Temples of Kawa,” “The Royal Cemeteries of Kush,” “Aksha,” “Works of the Spanish Commission for UNESCO in Nubia,” “Ancient Nubia: Works of the Mission of the Soviet Academy of Sciences in the Arab Republic of Egypt,” and others. These works awakened the spirit of critical review and reconsideration of many issues, especially the issue of the origin of the Napata Kingdom and its cultural connections with earlier local cultures, especially the Kerma culture. Simple books that are more accessible to the public are also growing: such as the works of Дзевановский, 1988, Curto, 1965, Greener, 1962, Davidson, 1959, and Keating, 1975, which expresses global interest in the UNESCO campaign to save the antiquities of Nubia, which are threatened by drowning as a result of the construction of the High Dam. Shinnie,1967Trigger,1969Hofmann,1971Дзевановский,1988Curto,1965Greener,1962Davidson,1959Keating,1975
But the voices of those who started in their historical visions and conclusions from the statement of the decline of the creative abilities of some peoples or races were not silenced, and who continued to look at the Napata and Meroe kingdoms as a low image of Egypt, and that their collapse is explained by the decline of the culture that the Egyptians brought there due to the invasion of Negro tribes from the south, who lacked creative abilities and thus to establish a state. Such were, for example, the views of the well-known scholar of African studies, Westermann (1952). Westermann,1952
There are two models of racist theories - advocates of the first model emphasize the creative supremacy of the white race and the inability of the black race to independently reach the higher levels of culture, while advocates of the second model seek to return almost all of the world's civilizations to Africa. The second model appears to be merely a natural reaction to long-term colonial domination. As a result of biased and incorrect treatments of sources and facts, conclusions are reached, such as, that everywhere “in Europe we can find clear Negro traits,” or that the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty are of Ethiopian origin (as both Diuba and Sheikh Diop assert).
In Shiny's book referred to earlier, all, or most, of what is known about the Napata-Meroe kingdom is briefly presented. The author, whose contribution to the study of ancient Sudanese history can only be highly appreciated, presents the results of his observations and important personal research. In cases, he adds his voice to the opinions of other scholars, even though they may be controversial (for example, the identification of Khababsh with Cambyses, the existence of the so-called first Napata family, etc.). Unfortunately, the author did not address the socio-economic structure and political structure of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom. However, Sheeny rightly emphasizes the error of describing Meroe culture as a barbaric regional imitation of Egyptian culture, and that it did not contribute to the treasure of general human experience and knowledge. Sheeny forcefully demolishes the false opinions, demonstrating their falsehood, reliably proving that the Kingdom of Meroe possessed its own distinctive local civilization and that it exerted its influence on the development of African intellectual and material culture. Sheni's book is thus an indisputably advanced phenomenon in the historical notation of Kush.
If there were attempts to generalize all the problems studied in the history of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom, the first was, fortunately, by a Sudanese researcher, Fawzi Gadallah (1963), while the second came by William Adams (1964), who rightly emphasized the continuity and uninterruption of local historical and cultural traditions since the times of Kerma. Gadallah,1963Adams,1964
As we mentioned, much has been accomplished in the field of studying the history of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom after the end of World War II: attempts were made to scrutinize the chronology Hofmann, 1978 (this work is controversial and will be translated in future issues - Arkamani). Some of the circumstances of the emergence of an independent state in Kush were established, the false theory of “Libyan” origin was definitively refuted, the reasons for the collapse of the Meroe kingdom were postponed, the problems of relations with neighboring countries, especially African ones, were established, the nature of the state structure was determined, and so on. Much of the credit goes to the successful activity of the centers specialized in studying the history and antiquities of Sudan, which were established at the Sorbonne University under the supervision of Professor Leclant, and at the Humboldt University in Berlin under the supervision of Professor Hintza. Activities were conducted in other countries - the USA, Canada, and Sudan (Treasure, Adams, and Cheney). Both Licklan and Treasure regularly publish a newsletter called the “Meroe Meroitic Newsletters”, which contains important practical information as well as valuable research, especially linguistic research. Almost every issue publishes a “Repertoire of Meroe Inscriptions”. In 1969, the Meroe Studies Group was established at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. The group operates successfully, holding annual conferences, at which research in history, archaeology, languages and cultural history is discussed. Religion to ancient Sudan. The group publishes the “Meroe Journal,” which publishes the research presented at the group’s annual conferences. Hofmann,1978Meroe patrol
Despite all this, many issues are still awaiting resolution, some of which, rather the most important, have not yet been raised. We'll talk about it later. For now, it would be useful to trace the historical destinies, albeit in a very general way, of the Napata-Meroe kingdom and point out its distinctive features. It must necessarily be said that the incompleteness of the sources and the resulting limitation of our knowledge will, in most cases, require re-evaluation, the introduction of corrections and additions, and even the refutation of some of them in the future according to the disclosure of more data.
On the basis of what little is currently available about the history of the Napata-Meroe Kingdom, the following stages can be established in its history:
* The emergence and establishment of the Napata Kingdom (tenth century - mid-eighth century BC)
* The prosperity of Napata and the united Egyptian Kushite state (mid-eighth century - mid-seventh century BC)
* Napata Kingdom (mid-seventh century - sixth century BC)
* Kingdom of Meroe. The first stage: emergence and prosperity (sixth century - end of the first century BC)
* Kingdom of Meroe. The second stage: the beginning of the collapse and disappearance (first century BC - about the middle of the fourth century AD)
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